Don’t be afraid…Let your soul take flight. New mix and master.

At long last, the 2025 remaster of Horse Latitudes album is available – you can listen (and purchase) it here: https://stevekeith1.bandcamp.com/album/horse-latitudes. The term Horse Latitudes is described below and is used as a metaphor in the song ‘Horse Latitudes’ (on this album) for how family life may be hectic and fast moving, but then as you age, the winds slow down and give you time to think and maybe regret the silence created.

The horse latitudes are the latitudes about 30 degrees north and south of the equator.^[1] They are characterized by sunny skies, calm winds, and very little precipitation. They are also known as subtropical ridges or highs. It is a high-pressure area at the divergence of trade winds and the westerlies.

Etymology

A likely and documented explanation is that the term is derived from the “dead horse” ritual of seamen (see Beating a dead horse). In this practice, the seaman paraded a straw-stuffed effigy of a horse around the deck before throwing it overboard. Seamen were paid partly in advance before a long voyage, and they frequently spent their pay all at once, resulting in a period of time without income. This period was called the “dead horse” time, and it usually lasted a month or two. The seaman’s ceremony was to celebrate having worked off the “dead horse” debt. As west-bound shipping from Europe usually reached the subtropics at about the time the “dead horse” was worked off, the latitude became associated with the ceremony.^[2]

An alternative theory, of sufficient popularity to serve as an example of folk etymology, is that the term horse latitudes originates from when the Spanish transported horses by ship to their colonies in the West Indies and Americas. Ships often became becalmed in mid-ocean in this latitude, thus severely prolonging the voyage; the resulting water shortages made it impossible for the crew to keep the horses alive, and they would throw the dead or dying animals overboard.^[3]

A third explanation, which simultaneously explains both the northern and southern horse latitudes and does not depend on the length of the voyage or the port of departure, is based on maritime terminology: a ship was said to be ‘horsed’ when, although there was insufficient wind for sail, the vessel could make good progress by latching on to a strong current. This was suggested by Edward Taube in his article “The Sense of ‘Horse’ in the Horse Latitudes”.^[4] He argued the maritime use of ‘horsed’ described a ship that was being carried along by an ocean current or tide in the manner of a rider on horseback. The term had been in use since the end of the seventeenth century. Furthermore, The India Directory in its entry for Fernando de Noronha, an island off the coast of Brazil, mentions it had been visited frequently by ships “occasioned by the currents having horsed them to the westward”.^[5]

A further explanation is that this naming first appeared in the English translation of a German book ^{[example needed]} where Rossbreiten was incorrectly understood as Pferdbreiten. The ‘Ross latitudes’ were named after the Englishman who described them first but could have been mistranslated, as Pferd and Ross are German synonyms for a horse. An incorrect translation could therefore have produced the term “horse latitudes”.^{[citation needed]}

Formation

The heating of the earth at the thermal equator leads to large amounts of convection along the Intertropical Convergence Zone. This air mass rises and then diverges, moving away from the equator in both northerly and southerly directions. As the air moves towards the mid-latitudes on both sides of the equator, it cools and sinks. This creates a ridge of high pressure near the 30th parallel in both hemispheres. At the surface level, the sinking air diverges again with some returning to the equator, creating the Hadley cell^[6] which during summer is reinforced by other climatological mechanisms such as the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism.^[7][8] Many of the world’s deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas.

The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer, reaching its highest latitude in early autumn, before moving back during the cold season. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge, with La Niña allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge, while El Niños show flatter, more southerly ridges. The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries. As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength, it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery.

The horse latitudes are associated with the subtropical anticyclone. The belt in the Northern Hemisphere is sometimes called the “calms of Cancer” and that in the Southern Hemisphere the “calms of Capricorn“.

The consistently warm, dry, and sunny conditions of the horse latitudes are the main cause for the existence of the world’s major hot deserts, such as the Sahara Desert in Africa, the Arabian and Syrian deserts in the Middle East, the Mojave and Sonoran deserts in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, all in the Northern Hemisphere; and the Atacama Desert, the Namib Desert, the Kalahari Desert, and the Australian Desert in the Southern Hemisphere.

Migration

The subtropical ridge starts migrating poleward in late spring reaching its zenith in early autumn before retreating equatorward during the late fall, winter, and early spring. The equatorward migration of the subtropical ridge during the cold season is due to increasing north-south temperature differences between the poles and tropics.^[9] The latitudinal movement of the subtropical ridge is strongly correlated with the progression of the monsoon trough or Intertropical Convergence Zone.

Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies.^[10] When the subtropical ridge shifts due to ENSO, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience far fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years, while mainland China experiences much greater landfall frequency during La Niña years. During El Niño years, the break^{[clarification needed]} in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130°E, which would favor the Japanese archipelago, while in La Niña years the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical ridge position, shift west, which increases the threat to China.^[11] In the Atlantic basin, the subtropical ridge position tends to lie about 5 degrees farther south during El Niño years, which leads to a more southerly recurvature for tropical cyclones during those years.

When the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation‘s mode is favorable to tropical cyclone development (1995–present), it amplifies the subtropical ridge across the central and eastern Atlantic.^[12]

Role in weather formation and air quality

See also: Air pollution

Main article: Monsoon

When the subtropical ridge in the northwest Pacific is stronger than normal, it leads to a wet monsoon season for Asia.^[13] The subtropical ridge position is linked to how far northward monsoon moisture and thunderstorms extend into the United States. The subtropical ridge across North America typically migrates far enough northward to begin monsoon conditions across the Desert Southwest from July to September.^[14] When the subtropical ridge is farther north than normal towards the Four Corners, monsoon thunderstorms can spread northward into Arizona. When the high pressure moves south, its circulation cuts off the moisture, and the hot, dry continental airmass returns from the northwest, and therefore the atmosphere dries out across the Desert Southwest, causing a break in the monsoon regime.^[15]

In summer, On the subtropical ridge’s western edge (generally on the eastern coast of continents), the high-pressure cell pushes poleward a southerly flow (northerly in the southern hemisphere) of tropical air. In the United States, the subtropical ridge Bermuda High helps create the hot, sultry summers with daily thunderstorms with buoyant airmasses typical of the Gulf of Mexico and the East Coast of the United States. This flow pattern also occurs on the eastern coasts of continents in other subtropical climates such as South China, southern Japan, central-eastern South America Pampas, southern Queensland and, KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa.^[16]

When surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under the subtropical ridge can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to widespread haze.^[17] If the low-level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.^[18]

From the Horse Latitudes album, remix and master. Recorded and produced at Baselines Designs studio.

I decided to sing it myself. Darren Garrett still does backing vocals near the end.

Waking up this morning
And I’m lacing up my shoes
Gonna take the boat on
A midnight cruise

Gotta get supplies
set it up like I should
Got a feeling Angel
There’s gonna be blood

Rita’s got the baby and
She’s packing up the kids
Gonna take a breather
Down in South Madrid

Dad is riding shotgun
and going thru the code
Me, I’ve got my needle
And my eyes are on the road.

Rudy’s got a problem
He’d been taking folks apart
Now he’s got my sister
And he’s going to break her heart

He’s been incognito
He’s been doing it so well
But now he’s on my table
and I’m sending him to Hell.

Dexter Morgan is a fictional character who is the antihero protagonist of the Dexter book series by the American author Jeff Lindsay, and the television series Dexter. He is mainly portrayed by Michael C. Hall in the original series and by Patrick Gibson in Dexter: Original Sin.

In both the novels and the first television series, Dexter is a highly intelligent forensic blood spatter analyst who works for the fictional Miami-Metro Police Department. In his spare time, he is a vigilante serial killer who targets other murderers who have evaded the justice system. Dexter follows a code of ethics taught to him in childhood by his adoptive father, Harry, which he refers to as “The Code” or “The Code of Harry” and which hinges on two principles: He can only kill people after finding conclusive evidence that they are guilty of murder, and he must not get caught. Dexter refers to his homicidal urges as his “Dark Passenger“; when he can no longer ignore his need to kill, he “lets the Dark Passenger do the driving”.

Dexter’s novel appearances include Darkly Dreaming Dexter (2004), Dearly Devoted Dexter (2005), Dexter in the Dark (2007), Dexter by Design (2009), Dexter Is Delicious (2010), Double Dexter (2011), Dexter’s Final Cut (2013), and Dexter Is Dead (2015). In 2006, the first novel was adapted into the Showtime TV series Dexter and its companion web series, Dexter: Early Cuts. The first season of Dexter is largely based on Darkly Dreaming Dexter, but the following seasons deviate substantially from the book series.

For his performance as Dexter, Hall has received critical acclaim. In 2009, he was awarded a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series or Drama. Paste ranked Dexter Morgan number 6 on their list of the 20 Best Characters of 2011.^[1] Hall was awarded a Television Critics Association Award for Individual Achievement in Drama in 2007, and was nominated five times for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. He reprised his role as Dexter in the miniseries Dexter: New Blood and the series premiere of the prequel series Dexter: Original Sin, and portrays him in the 2025 sequel series Dexter: Resurrection that explores the series of events that follow New Blood.

Characterization

General biography

Dexter Morgan was born in Miami, Florida, United States, in 1971.^[2] At the story’s outset, Dexter remembers very little about his life prior to being adopted by Harry and Doris Morgan. Harry only tells Dexter that his biological parents both died in a car accident, and Harry brought him home from the crime scene. Harry and Doris have a biological daughter, Debra (“Deborah” in the novels) Morgan, who becomes Dexter’s adoptive sister.

When Dexter is seven, Harry discovers that the boy has been killing neighborhood pets and realizes that Dexter is a psychopath with an innate need to kill. Consequently, Harry decides to channel the boy’s homicidal urges in a “positive” direction by teaching him to be a careful, meticulous killer of people who “deserve it”—murderers who have escaped justice. Doris died when Dexter was 16, and Harry died when Dexter was 20.^[3] In the second season, Dexter’s nemesis, Sergeant James Doakes, discovers that Dexter forsook a career in medicine to pursue blood spatter analysis despite being at the top of his class in medical school. He also notes that Dexter studied advanced Jiu-Jitsu in college.^[4]

Both the television show and the first novel gradually reveal Dexter’s complete back story. Dexter was born out of wedlock in 1971 to a young woman named Laura (Laura Moser on the show). In the novels, Laura was involved in the drug trade.^[5] In the show, Laura was a police informant for Harry and was also his mistress. Dexter’s biological father was in the U.S. Army and served in the Vietnam War, but later became a drug-addicted criminal. Dexter also had an older brother, named Brian.^[5][6] When Dexter was two years old, he witnessed his mother’s brutal murder at the hands of three drug dealers. For two days, Dexter and Brian were left in a crate, surrounded by dismembered body parts and sitting in a pool of blood.^[a] Harry adopted Dexter, while Brian was left to the child welfare system.^[b]

Dexter only remembers his mother’s murder later in life, when he is called to an extremely bloody crime scene left by his brother—who has also grown up to be a serial killer. In the novel, Brian escapes Miami, but returns in Dexter Is Delicious. On the show, however, Dexter catches and (reluctantly) kills Brian, aware that Brian would never stop trying to kill Debra or other innocent people.^[5]

Psychological profile

Since childhood, Dexter had homicidal urges directed by an inner voice he calls “the Dark Passenger”; when that voice cannot be ignored, he “lets the Dark Passenger do the driving”. He abides by a moral code taught to him by Harry: He can only kill people who are themselves murderers; he must find conclusive proof of their guilt before killing them; and he must be careful and methodical enough to avoid getting caught.

Dexter considers himself emotionally divorced and separate from the rest of humanity; in his narration, he refers to “humans” as if he is not one himself. He makes frequent references to an internal feeling of emptiness, and says he kills to feel alive. He claims to have no feelings or conscience, and that all of his emotional responses are part of a well-rehearsed act to conceal his true nature. He has no interest in romance or sex; he considers his relationship with his girlfriend (and eventual wife) Rita Bennett to be part of his “disguise”.

Dexter likes children, finding them much more interesting than adults; accordingly, he treats victims who prey on children with particular wrath. His connection to Rita’s children, Astor and Cody, sometimes supersedes his relationship with Rita herself. For example, in the novels, Dexter continues his relationship with Rita because he realizes that Rita’s children are exhibiting the same sociopathic tendencies he did at their age, and he tries to provide them with “guidance” similar to that which Harry provided him. Early on in the show, Dexter deviates from his code of only killing murderers to kill a pedophile who is stalking Astor.

Animals dislike Dexter, which can cause problems when he stalks a victim who has pets. The novels reveal that he once owned a dog that barked and growled at him until he was forced to get rid of it and a turtle that hid from him in its shell until it died of starvation.

Dexter occasionally behaves in a way that suggests that he does feel some rudimentary human connection. He acknowledges loyalty to family, particularly to his late adoptive father, saying: “If I were capable of love, how I would have loved Harry.” Since Harry’s death, Dexter’s only family is his sister Debra, Harry and Doris’ biological daughter. Dexter admits that he cannot hurt Debra or allow anyone else to harm her because he is “fond of her”. In the first episode of season one, he says: “I don’t have feelings about anything, but if I could have feelings at all, I’d have them for Deb.”

In the first season, Dexter’s relationship with Rita sets in motion his gradual introduction to human feelings, progressing further each season. During the episode “Shrink Wrap“, when his current target is a psychologist, Dexter infiltrates his office by posing as a patient, and the doctor astutely speculates that part of Dexter’s problem in admitting to his feelings is his need for control; this revelation helps Dexter finally have real intimacy with Rita. In the second-season finale, “The British Invasion“, Dexter finally admits that he needs the people in his life.^[7] In season three, when he is threatened by a target, Dexter fights to live because he wants to see his unborn child. In season four, before killing a police officer who has murdered her own husband and daughter, Dexter is overwhelmed with the realization that he does not want to lose his new family. He is also horrified when he finds out that one of his potential victims is an abusive husband and father; Dexter vehemently insists he is nothing like that and would never hurt his family.

In season five, after Rita is murdered, Dexter realizes that he genuinely loved her, and is devastated by losing her. However, after Rita’s death, Dexter became worse in many aspects. These ranged from his emotional depth to his skills as a killer, as he broke his code of not killing non-killers and innocents, once in a fit of rage,^[8] and later, if it meant he remained free;^[9] he was even willing to kill his ex-girlfriend, the chief of police Angela Bishop and the police sergeant Logan was Dexter’s final victim, as well as the final violation of the Code of Harry. Despite the blatant violation of the Code that was Logan’s murder, Dexter showed absolutely no remorse or guilt, instead focused solely on escaping with his son Harrison, and he even tried to justify the murder to Harrison. His last conversation with Harrison became a turning point for him—no longer could he consider himself morally superior to his victims, accepting that he himself fit the Code and that he was just another cold blooded murderer.^[10]

In Dexter: Resurrection, after surviving his shooting, a physically weakened Dexter tracks his son down to protect him after Harrison starts committing his own murders. While Dexter is killing again, he has evolved and seemingly for the better, choosing to prioritize saving a killer’s next victim over killing the man, resulting in the killer escaping empty-handed. As pointed out by Dexter’s Dark Passenger, he has never done this before, meaning that Dexter has begun caring about other people for the first time. He has also reaffirmed his commitment to the Code and has gone back to basics with his kills.

Modus operandi

In both the books and the show, Dexter selects his victims according to his adoptive father’s code and kills them only after he has discovered enough evidence to prove their guilt. For each victim, he ritually prepares a kill site that has some symbolic relevance to the killer (e.g., killing a boxer in a boxing ring or a gambler in a casino’s storage shed). He completely drapes the site in clear plastic tarpaulin to catch all spilled blood, and often adorns it with evidence or photos of his victim’s crimes.

The actual capture of his victims differs between the books and the show. On the show, it usually entails approaching the victims from behind and injecting an anesthetic (specified to be an animal tranquilizer called etorphine hydrochloride, or M99 or ketamine which is the only anesthetic used in the novels, as well as a few times in the show), which renders his victims temporarily unconscious.^[11] The injection is a tradition established with his first victim, the hospital nurse.^[12] He uses the alias Patrick Bateman (the serial killer protagonist of Bret Easton Ellis‘ American Psycho) to procure these tranquilizers.^[11] In New Blood, Dexter switches to using ketamine to sedate his victims, due to no longer being able to acquire M99 but he returns to using M99 in Resurrection. Other times, Dexter incapacitates his target by using either his hands or a garrote to cut off blood flow to the brain. In the books (and twice in the TV show), he hides in the back seat of his victim’s vehicle, then wraps a noose of fishing line around his victim’s throat when they sit down in the front seat. Dexter then uses the threat of asphyxiation to force his victim to drive them to his prepared kill site.

Once they have arrived, he either strangles them into unconsciousness or uses the noose to drag them to the kill site. In such cases, he anesthetizes them once he has informed them of his judgment. Just before the murder, Dexter collects blood trophies from his victims so he can relive the experience. Dexter’s trophy signature is slicing the victim’s right cheek with a surgical scalpel to collect a small blood sample, which he preserves on a microscope slide. Dexter did not always collect blood slide trophies though, as he initially kept a pair of his first victims earrings as a trophy, though he would dispose of them when he disposed of his second victim. Keeping trophies was something Harry condemned, as the Code was meant to separate Dexter from the people he killed.

When victims awaken, they are naked and secured to a table with plastic wrap, and for stronger victims, duct tape. If he has not already done so, he confronts them with narrative evidence of their crimes. In the novels, the method usually involves an extended “exploration” with various sharp knives; on the show, Dexter’s favored method usually involves an immediately fatal wound to the chest, neck, or gut with a variety of weapons, usually a sharp knife. He occasionally varies his methods to fit particular victims; he kills his brother (and fellow serial killer) Brian by cutting his throat with a dinner knife (with the manner of the death and Dexter’s own hesitation at inflicting the wound causing pathologists to conclude that Brian killed himself);^[5] he stabs gang lord Little Chino in the chest with a machete;^[13] and he kills Santos Jimenez—the man who murdered his mother—in the same manner in which his mother was killed, by dismembering him with a chainsaw. He also tries to do the same to the man who ordered his mother’s murder, Hector Estrada, but is prevented from doing so since Estrada is being used as bait against Dexter: he eventually kills Estrada simply by stabbing him in the heart. On other occasions, he uses hammers, drills, and other power tools. On a few occasions, Dexter has even resorted to killing with his bare hands, such as drowning victims or manually breaking their necks.

In the TV show, Dexter keeps his trophy blood slides from all his victims neatly organized in a wooden filing box, which he hides inside his air conditioner. In the novels, he keeps them in a rosewood box on his bookcase. Dexter, in the TV series, eventually discontinues his practice of taking blood slide trophies during the seventh season, primarily because of the potential of him being caught due to a renewed secret investigation into the Bay Harbor Butcher, and because Debra has discovered his true self and he wants to be a better person for her. In New Blood, he does take a blood slide from his first murder victim in 10 years, but does not keep it, proclaiming that he is an “evolving monster”. In Resurrection, while Dexter did not take a blood slide from his first victim in New York, he decided to go back to basics while reaffirming his commitment to the Code and took a makeshift blood slide from his next victim.

Ultimately, he dismembers the bodies into several pieces, stows them and the plastic sheeting in black opaque garbage bags, and weighs the bags down with rocks and seals them with duct tape. He then takes the bags out on his boat, the Slice of Life, and dumps them overboard into the ocean at a defined location; in the TV series, his dumping ground is a small oceanic trench just offshore. In one episode, the dump site and remains are inadvertently discovered by scuba divers, so he changes tactics, cutting the bodies into smaller pieces and dumping them further offshore, where they will be dispersed by the Gulf Stream. Original Sin reveals that for his first two kills, Dexter disposed of them in a part of the Everglades known as ‘Alligator Alley’ and did not dismember his victims, though he would be forced to resort to a different disposal site when the remains of his second victim were found. He resorted to dumping the body of his third victim in a dumpster where it would be disposed of in a landfill. By the time he disposed of his fourth victim, Dexter had settled on dumping the remains at sea, with his fourth victim being the first to be fully dismembered and disposed of in six hefty trash bags in the sea at the Biscayne Bay. In the case of his first victim in Dexter: New Blood, he still dismembers the body, but initially only buries the remains in plastic bags under a fire pit by his cabin. When an investigation begins, he burns the remains in an incinerator. The incinerator becomes his go to method for disposing of his victims, though he leaves two of his victims at the locations where he killed them because he has no time to dispose of them. In Resurrection, when he moves to New York and resumes his killing spree, Dexter continues to use an incinerator to dispose of his victims remains. The books give less detail about disposal, with Dexter usually improvising depending on the victim. He dumps some victims into the ocean, but he uses anchors to weigh the bags. He disposes of another body in a vat of hydrochloric acid.

Dexter in the book series

Darkly Dreaming Dexter

Doris Morgan, Dexter’s adoptive mother, dies of cancer when he is 16. When Dexter reaches puberty, he realizes that he is uninterested in sex and needs instruction by his father on how to behave with women. Around this time, Harry discovers that Dexter has been killing neighborhood pets and realizes that the boy has an innate need to kill. Harry decides to channel Dexter’s urges in a “positive” direction by teaching him to kill people who “deserve it”, and to get rid of any evidence so he does not get found.

When Dexter is 18, Harry is hospitalized due to a heart attack. There, Harry gives Dexter his “permission” to kill his first human victim, a nurse who is murdering her patients with overdoses of potassium nitrate.

Throughout the novel, Dexter is involved in the investigation of the “Tamiami Butcher”, a serial killer who dismembers his victims and puts the body parts in refrigerated trucks. The killer begins leaving taunting clues for Dexter to draw him in. The killer kidnaps Deborah and meets with Dexter in a storage container, and reveals their true connection: he is Brian, Dexter’s biological brother. Brian tells Dexter that as children, they witnessed their mother’s brutal murder at the hands of drug dealers, and were locked in a crate for two days, surrounded by dead bodies. Dexter persuades Brian to spare Deborah, and instead the two of them kill Lieutenant Migdia LaGuerta (this does not occur in the TV series, in which LaGuerta—whose first name is changed to “Maria”—is a recurring character until her death at the end of the seventh season).

At the end of the novel, Deborah learns of Dexter’s secret life after he saves her from Brian. She appears to accept it, but in subsequent books feels torn between her duties as a police officer and her loyalty to Dexter, whom she loves as her real brother.

Dearly Devoted Dexter

Dexter’s nemesis, Sergeant Doakes, suspects Dexter of being involved in LaGuerta’s murder, and starts following him around. Doakes and Dexter are soon forced to work together to stop “Dr. Danco”, a psychopathic surgeon who removes his victims’ limbs and sensory organs, leaving them in a state of living death.

Doakes’ pursuit forces Dexter to spend more time with Rita and her children. While attempting to bond with Astor and Cody, he realizes that they both have “Dark Passengers” of their own, and he resolves to provide them with the same “guidance” that Harry had given him. After finding FBI agent Kyle Chutsky’s ring in Dexter’s pocket, Rita believes Dexter is about to propose to her, and happily accepts before Dexter can explain.

At the climax of the book, Danco kidnaps Dexter and Doakes, mutilating the latter by removing his hands, feet, and tongue. Just as Danco is about to turn his attention to Dexter, however, Deborah bursts in and kills him, saving Dexter’s life.

Dexter in the Dark

In Dexter in the Dark, the third novel of the series, the third-person narrative reveals through an entity referred to as “IT” that the Dark Passenger is an independent agent inhabiting Dexter, rather than a deviant psychological construction. Later, Dexter realizes the Dark Passenger is related to Moloch, a Middle Eastern deity worshiped in Biblical times. The Dark Passenger is one of Moloch’s many offspring; Moloch had many children (formed through human sacrifice), and learned to share its knowledge with them. Eventually, there were too many, and Moloch killed the majority; however, some of them escaped into the world. In the novel, Dexter learns of the Dark Passenger’s true nature when it briefly “leaves” him, frightening him into researching possible reasons for its existence.

By now, Dexter had embraced his role as stepfather to both children, but is annoyed when thoughts of them—wondering if Cody had brushed his teeth before bed and if Astor had set out her Easter dress for picture day at her school—distract him from hunting an intended victim. By the end of the book, he had begun training Astor and Cody to be careful, efficient killers, with great success: when the novel’s antagonist, a Moloch-worshipping cult leader, kidnaps the three of them, Cody saves Dexter’s life by killing one of his henchmen.

The novel ends with the Dark Passenger returning to Dexter on his wedding day.

Dexter by Design

Dexter by Design opens in Paris, with Dexter and Rita on their honeymoon. There, while visiting an art gallery, Dexter and Rita see an avant-garde performance piece called “Jennifer’s Leg” in which the artist amputates her own limb. When they return to Miami, Dexter crosses paths with a suspicious homicide detective and a serial killer who preys on tourists: though the killer had initially only stolen corpses to mutilate and pose for art, he switches to actually killing people when his lover becomes one of Dexter’s victims, with Dexter’s murder of the lover being caught on a video camera that the two had hidden and used to record the mutilated corpses. Dexter also discovers that the victim was not a murderer or even an attempted murderer, and leaves him feeling some semblance of guilt due to the fact he accidentally broke the Code and killed an innocent man. In the novel’s closing paragraphs, Dexter learns that Rita is pregnant with his child.

Dexter Is Delicious

In Dexter Is Delicious, Dexter grapples with raising his infant daughter, Lily-Anne, and wonders if she can help restore his humanity. Brian reappears in Dexter’s life, situating himself with Dexter’s family. The main event for the Miami Police Department is related to the appearance of cooked, partially eaten bodies and the disappearance of a teenage girl, Samantha. Dexter has sex with Samantha while under the influence of ecstasy, and tries to prevent Rita from finding out while helping Deborah solve the murders.

The novel reintroduces Dexter’s brother, Brian, who shows up unexpectedly at Dexter’s doorstep and inserts himself into his brother’s new family. Dexter is reluctant at first to let Brian back into his life, but changes his mind when he sees him bond with Astor and Cody over their shared bloodlust.

Double Dexter

In Double Dexter, Dexter is seen by an anonymous Shadow while killing a victim in a secluded house. He continues on with his life until he starts receiving threatening emails from the person who claims to have seen him over a pile of dead body parts. Instead of turning him in, the Shadow, as he is referred to, takes it upon himself to take Dexter down. While Dexter tries to find and dispose of this Shadow, he quickly finds out that this person is much more capable than he initially suspected. Dexter is eventually framed for a murder, at least circumstantially, by his still anonymous Shadow.

While on suspension from the police force for being a ‘person of interest’ in a murder investigation, Dexter finally finds out who his Shadow is: Doug Crowley. When he goes to dispatch Crowley, he finds he is once again being tailed by Doakes. Realizing that no way exists to take down Crowley with Doakes on his tail, he enlists the help of his brother, Brian, and finally thinks that his problems have been taken care of.

While Brian is dispatching Doug Crowley, Dexter goes down to Key West with his family. Despite learning from his brother that a Doug Crowley had been taken care of, he finds the body of Detective Hood, the lead detective investigating him for murder, in his hotel suite, with the only explanation being that Brian killed the wrong Doug Crowley.

While Dexter is preoccupied with the Key West police, Crowley finally attacks Dexter by abducting Cody and Astor. Dexter hunts Crowley down to a small island off the coast of Key West. He finally gets the drop on him, and Crowley escapes with Astor on a speedboat. Dexter manages to sneak aboard and overpower Crowley, with some assistance from Astor. They shove Crowley overboard, where he is eaten by a hammerhead shark.

With Crowley dead, Dexter can finally focus on clearing his name in the murder investigation. He plants evidence in Hood’s apartment, thoroughly discrediting him, while Doakes is now under review for excessive force and intimidating a witness. These developments leave Dexter in the clear.

Dexter’s Final Cut

Deborah and Dexter are assigned as “technical advisors” to the stars of a police procedural TV series. Deborah is shadowed by female lead Jackie Forrest and Dexter is left with over-the-hill star Robert Chase. Sensing a strangeness in him, Dexter keeps Robert at arm’s length. When a series of murders leads Miami Metro’s Detective Anderson through a loop, Dexter is assigned to guard Jackie.

Deborah and Dexter quickly realize that the string of bodies all bear a striking resemblance to Jackie. Dexter is assigned to protect her in her hotel room. At first, things seem perfectly routine; Dexter accompanies Jackie to the station each morning and returns with her to the hotel at night, but when the killer’s identity is revealed to him, Dexter’s “Dark Passenger” leads him out into the streets in pursuit.

While working a crime scene where police have found another body matching the pattern of Jackie’s obsessed fan, Dexter notices a man fitting the description in a kayak out in the bay watching the scene. Stealing away to his boat, Dexter slips alongside the man and kills him. After a hard day’s work, they return to the hotel only to be disturbed in the night by sirens; Jackie’s assistant Kathy has been murdered in the room below. The murder seems to fit the pattern, but Dexter notices several errors. That night, Dexter and Jackie have sex, and start a brief but intense affair. Dexter thinks he has fallen in love with Jackie, and considers leaving Rita.

Dexter is called onto the set to appear as a minor character in the series following a conversation with Jackie and Robert. Suddenly, Dexter gets a panicked phone call from Rita: Astor has disappeared. Fearing the worst, Dexter goes in search of Robert, who had shown a suspicious interest in Astor. He questions the show’s director, who confirms that Robert is a pedophile. Moments later, he finds Jackie’s dead body in her trailer. Dexter then pieces it together: Robert killed Kathy after she caught him in a compromising position with Astor, and then killed Jackie when she found out what he had done. Dexter follows a hunch and heads to Rita and his new house. Robert catches him sneaking in and knocks him unconscious.

Waking sometime later, Dexter finds Astor and Robert together in the house. Robert has lured Astor with promises of stardom, and she appears ready to help him to kill Dexter. Thinking quickly, Dexter tells Astor that Robert will be arrested and sent to prison, and is thus useless to her. When Robert tries to take Astor as a hostage, she stabs him to death. Dexter realizes that circumstantial evidence implicates him as the murderer of Robert and Jackie, and that the only person who can exonerate him is Rita. When Dexter searches the house, however, he finds that Rita is dead, murdered by Robert. Dexter sees that his luck has finally run out, and waits for the police to arrive.

Dexter Is Dead

In Dexter Is Dead, the final book in the series, Dexter is in jail after being charged with Robert’s crimes—thanks to the corrupt Detective Anderson, who has falsified evidence and reports to make it seem that Dexter is guilty. Only Miami Metro’s head forensic scientist Vince Masuoka tries to clear Dexter’s name, but he gets swatted down by everyone from the beat cops to the state attorney. Deborah, meanwhile, has disowned Dexter for cheating on Rita and putting Astor in danger, and taken custody of his children.

Dexter’s brother Brian bails him out of prison and gets him the best lawyer in town, but the lawyer happens to be in the pocket of a powerful Mexican drug cartel led by a man named Raul, who is after Brian. The cartel tries to kill Dexter several times to get to Brian. Eventually, Dexter and Brian find out their lawyer sold them out to the cartel, so they kill him and the cartel’s members who were sent to kill them, save for one, whom they torture to find out where the cartel’s leader, Raul, is holding Cody and Astor.

Dexter and Deborah repair their relationship, and team up with Brian to save Astor and Cody. They storm Raul’s yacht and take the kids back. Deborah and the kids get away, but Brian is killed by a bomb and Raul shoots Dexter in the shoulder. Dexter kills Raul and sets a bomb so no evidence is left, then jumps off the boat into the water and sinks into the ocean. The book leaves it open to interpretation whether he survives.

Dexter in the television show

Season one

By the start of season one, Dexter is a blood spatter analyst for the Miami Metro Police Department; in his “secret life”, he is a serial killer who preys on people who are themselves murderers. In his private life, Dexter maintains superficial relationships – with his sister Debra (Jennifer Carpenter), his girlfriend Rita (Julie Benz), and Rita’s children, Astor (Christina Robinson) and Cody (Daniel Goldman in season one, Preston Bailey in subsequent seasons) to appear normal. Dexter has internal conversations with his late foster father, Harry Morgan (James Remar), who gives him advice about killing and navigating his personal life.

Rita’s previous, abusive marriage leaves her afraid to have sex, which suits the asexual Dexter perfectly. When she overcomes her demons and becomes more amorous, however, Dexter considers ending the relationship, fearing that she will see him as he really is if they become a real couple.^[14] However, during a therapy session with one of his intended victims, psychologist Emmett Meridian (Tony Goldwyn), Dexter is put into a state of deep relaxation, wherein he sees a frightening image of a small boy sitting in a pool of blood. In a heightened emotional state, he runs to Rita’s house for comfort, and they have sex.^[14]

Meanwhile, a serial killer of prostitutes appears in Miami, and Dexter notices that the killer is leaving hidden clues at the scene that have personal significance to Dexter. One day, Dexter receives official notification that a man named Joseph Driscoll is his biological father, and that, since Dexter is the only next of kin, he must come settle the estate and claim the body. Debra’s new boyfriend, Rudy Cooper (Christian Camargo), insists that they accompany Dexter and Rita to clean out the house. Dexter doubts that Driscoll is his father, but while cleaning, discovers a thank-you card that he sent his blood donor as a child, as Dexter has a rare blood type (AB-).^[15] As Harry had convinced Driscoll to donate the blood anonymously, Dexter had no idea from where it had come.^[15] Dexter suspects his father’s death was foul play, but the body is cremated before Dexter can obtain proof.^[15] The show reveals to the viewer that Rudy murdered Driscoll with an injection of insulin designed to mimic a heart attack.^[15]

Dexter’s rivalry with Rita’s recently paroled ex-husband Paul (Mark Pellegrino) turns violent; Paul tries to fight Dexter, who knocks him unconscious. To cover his tracks, Dexter injects Paul with heroin and leaves him to be found. Paul fails a drug test (thus breaking his probation) and returns to jail.

Dexter is called to analyze a hotel room flooded with the blood of multiple persons. The sight triggers a panic attack and calls up several memories of himself as a child sitting in blood.^[16] His research leads him to discover he witnessed his mother’s murder as a child, and he had a brother named Brian. Eventually, the Ice Truck Killer (who turns out to be Rudy) kidnaps Debra after proposing to her, then drugs her and takes her to Dexter’s childhood home. When Dexter goes to rescue Debra, he finally recognizes Rudy as his long-lost brother, Brian Moser.

Brian proposes that they begin to murder together, and leads Dexter to a bound and drugged Debra, suggests that she be their first kill. After wrestling with internal conflicts from his attachment to his biological brother and need to protect his adoptive sister, Dexter ultimately decides that his loyalty lies with Debra. Later on, Brian begins to hunt down Debra himself, but Dexter apprehends Brian and then ties him down to an operating table in Brian’s apartment. Dexter tearfully slits Brian’s throat, staging the crime scene to make it look like Brian committed suicide. Eventually, the police find the body and close the case. The season ends with Dexter wondering what it would be like if everyone knew his secrets and imagining being celebrated outside the police station by an adoring crowd.^[5]

Season two

In season two, Dexter is so haunted by killing his own brother that he cannot resume killing. To make matters worse, Debra, traumatized by her ordeal with the Ice Truck Killer, moves in with Dexter, which hinders his secret life. Dexter’s nemesis, Sergeant James Doakes (Erik King), harbors lingering suspicions about Dexter’s possible connection with the Ice Truck Killer, and he begins to tail Dexter everywhere. To throw him off, Dexter reluctantly refrains from killing for a month. Just as Dexter finds a chance to kill again, over 30 bodies (Dexter’s victims) are found in a Miami harbor, provoking a massive search for the so-called “Bay Harbor Butcher”.

Rita soon figures out that Dexter has been lying to her and concludes that Dexter is a heroin addict; Dexter vaguely confesses to having “an addiction” in order to hide his real secret. Rita forces him to attend Narcotics Anonymous meetings, where he meets Lila Tournay (Jaime Murray), who becomes his sponsor. Lila convinces him to explore his past, and while under extreme duress after confronting and killing his mother’s murderer, his relationship with Lila becomes sexual. Dexter confesses to Rita, who dumps him. Lila becomes obsessed with Dexter, believing he is her soulmate. Eventually, however, Dexter’s desire to be with Astor and Cody compels him to ask for Rita’s forgiveness; she grants it, and they get back together. Dexter learns that Lila is in fact a sociopath who attends NA meetings to vicariously experience emotions she is incapable of feeling, and tells her to leave him alone. Lila retaliates by framing Dexter’s colleague and friend Angel Batista (David Zayas) for rape, though he is eventually cleared.

Doakes’ suspicions subside some when he realizes that Dexter is attending Narcotics Anonymous, but he begins to suspect this is a cover for an even worse secret. As Doakes gets closer to discovering the truth, Dexter provokes him into a physical altercation at work, resulting in Doakes’ suspension. In “The British Invasion“, Doakes finally catches Dexter in the act of disposing of a dismembered body in the Florida Everglades. Dexter is forced to take Doakes captive and sets about framing him. Lila discovers the cabin in the Everglades where Dexter is holding Doakes and blows it up (with Doakes inside), to protect Dexter. The police eventually find Doakes’ charred body, surrounded by Dexter’s murderous paraphernalia, and conclude that Doakes was the Bay Harbor Butcher, much to Dexter’s relief.^[7]

Dexter pretends to want to run away with Lila, but she soon discovers that he intends to kill her. Lila kidnaps Astor and Cody, and when Dexter finds them at her house, she sets it on fire and leaves the three of them locked inside. Dexter manages to save the children and escape unhurt. Weeks later, he follows Lila to Paris, where he thanks her for showing him his “true self” before killing her.^[7]

Season three

In season three, Dexter finds his life manageable until he discovers that Rita is pregnant.^[3] Dexter, afraid of what kind of father he would be, considers leaving Rita to parent alone, until Debra convinces him that he would be a great father. After a few failed marriage proposals, Dexter proposes again by mimicking a declaration of love from one of his victims. Rita finally accepts, with her children’s blessing.^[3]

Meanwhile, after killing Oscar Prado in self-defense while attempting to murder a homicidal drug dealer named Freebo, Dexter forms an unlikely friendship with Oscar’s brother, Miguel (Jimmy Smits), a popular assistant district attorney.^[3] While hunting down Freebo at night, Prado stumbles upon Dexter, bloody from murdering Freebo; Dexter claims he killed Freebo in self-defense. Prado offers Dexter Freebo’s bloody shirt as proof that he will not reveal Dexter’s secret.^[17] The two men grow closer, and Dexter even makes Prado his best man. Prado gradually discerns that Dexter is a serial killer, and they begin to murder together according to Dexter’s “code”. When Prado deviates from the code to murder a rival defense attorney, it sets off a game of competing leverage and blackmail between the two men.^[18] Dexter discovers the blood on the shirt is actually bovine, meaning that Prado was just using him as an excuse to kill. Angry and hurt, Dexter decides to kill Prado.^[19]

Dexter then kills Prado^[20] and marries Rita, with Debra as his “best man”.^[21] After being tipped off by Prado, a serial killer called “the Skinner” (Jesse Borrego), who is searching for Freebo, kidnaps Dexter on Dexter’s wedding day. Facing certain death, Dexter resolves to keep fighting so he can live to see his son; he frees himself and kills the Skinner by snapping his neck and throwing his body into an arriving police car.

During the course of the season, Dexter justifies killing two people who do not fit his code: Nathan Marten (Jason Kaufman), a pedophile who is stalking Astor;^[22] and his old friend Camilla Figg (Margo Martindale), who is dying of cancer and asks him to end her suffering.^[23]

Season four

At outset of season four, Rita has given birth to a baby boy, Harrison. Dexter is happy to have a child of his own, but his responsibilities as a new father leave him too exhausted to kill.^[24] Dexter finds it increasingly difficult to keep concealing his secret life, which leads to conflict with Rita and Astor, who has entered adolescence. At Rita’s urging, Dexter and she enter couples therapy.

While driving home after killing his first victim in months, Dexter falls asleep at the wheel and has an accident, and the resultant short-term memory loss causes him to forget where his victim’s body is.^[24] He eventually retraces his steps and disposes of the body. After retired Special Agent Frank Lundy (Keith Carradine) is murdered, Dexter begins his pursuit of the so-called “Trinity Killer”, who has been committing ritualistic murders across the country for 30 years.^[24] Once Dexter finds the killer, however, he is shocked to discover that “Trinity” is actually Arthur Mitchell (John Lithgow), a family man and pillar of his community.

Dexter assumes the alias Kyle Butler and begins to insinuate himself into Mitchell’s personal life in an effort to learn how Mitchell balances his family responsibilities with his secret life as a serial killer. To that end, Dexter repeatedly puts off murdering Mitchell, thwarts police efforts to apprehend him, and even saves Mitchell’s life when he attempts suicide. Upon getting to know Mitchell, however, Dexter realizes that he misjudged him; after spending Thanksgiving with the Mitchell family, Dexter learns that his would-be mentor is an abusive tyrant whose family is terrified of him. After getting into a violent altercation with Mitchell, Dexter insists that they are nothing alike and thinks he may be able to silence his Dark Passenger permanently.^[25]

During his pursuit of Trinity, Dexter targets a photographer, Jonathan Farrow (Greg Ellis) who is accused of murder, targeting him after he seemingly threatens Debra. He acquires proof that indicate that Farrow killed the models he took photos of, before capturing and killing Farrow in his own photography studio, despite Farrow’s adamant protests that he did not kill anyone. The next day, Dexter learns that it was in fact Farrow’s assistant that had been killing the models, and he is left shaken by the knowledge that he has unintentionally violated his code.

When he returns home, Dexter makes arrangements for Rita and him to take a belated honeymoon. He sends Rita ahead and entraps Mitchell, who is trying to skip town. Before Dexter kills him with a hammer, Mitchell tells him that Dexter will not be able to control his violent urges for long, and that “it’s already over”—the same thing Mitchell tells his victims just before killing them.

Harry was right. I thought I could change what I am, keep my family safe. But it doesn’t matter what I do, what I choose… I’m what’s wrong. This is… fate

— Dexter Morgan, “The Getaway”, Episode 4.12

After returning home, Dexter calls Rita’s phone to find out if she and Harrison made it alright. He immediately hears Rita’s phone start to ring, indicating that she is in the house. Harrison then starts crying and Dexter is devastated to find Rita lying dead in the bathtub, with Harrison on the floor in a pool of his mother’s blood; she was Trinity’s final victim.^[26]

Season five

The fifth season opens with a shocked, guilt-ridden Dexter clutching Harrison as the police respond to his call, in which Dexter says “It was me”. While he means that he killed her by letting Mitchell know his identity, the police interpret this as an admission of direct guilt. The FBI, however, soon clear Dexter, as he was with the police at Mitchell’s house at the time Rita was murdered.

Dexter spends the next day completely numb, unable to even fake any sort of emotion or grief. As Dexter plans to disconnect and restart, he finds himself confronted by Rankin (Brad Carter), a brash, foul-mouthed hillbilly. When Rankin insults Rita, Dexter kills him in a fit of rage. Harry tells Dexter that this act is the first human thing he has seen Dexter do since Rita’s death.^[8]

Distraught over Rita’s death, Astor and Cody leave to go live with their grandparents. A struggling Dexter attempts to move on by hiring a nanny to look after Harrison while he goes out to find his next kill. He settles on Boyd Fowler (Shawn Hatosy), a convicted rapist whose connection to a string of missing women makes him the perfect target. Dexter kills Fowler, only to find Fowler’s latest kidnapping and rape victim, a young blonde woman named Lumen Pierce (Julia Stiles), who is still alive. After debating whether or not to kill her (and thus eliminate a potential witness), Dexter gives in to his better nature and decides to protect her. Lumen finds it hard trust Dexter, but comes to realize he means her no harm. She reveals that Fowler was not the only man who raped her. As Lumen gradually becomes integrated into Dexter’s life, she begs him to help her to go after her attackers; Dexter reluctantly agrees. They stalk a children’s dentist and the head of security for a high-profile motivational speaker named Jordan Chase (Jonny Lee Miller). It soon becomes clear that Chase was also one of Lumen’s attackers. Complicating the situation further is Detective Joey Quinn (Desmond Harrington), who believes that Dexter killed Rita and is getting too close to finding out Dexter’s dark secrets.

To keep the police occupied, Dexter puts them on Fowler’s trail. Dexter becomes personally acquainted with Chase and stumbles onto a photo that proves that all of Lumen’s attackers (who are also guilty of torturing, raping, and murdering 12 other women) have known each other since childhood.

Dexter eventually finds a vial of blood that Chase wears around his neck. After extracting a sample, he discovers that the blood belongs to Emily Birch (Angela Bettis), the rape club’s first victim. She provides Lumen and Dexter with the identity of the mysterious fourth attacker in the photo, Alex Tilden (Scott Grimes). Dexter allows Lumen to kill Tilden by stabbing him in the heart. Dexter and Lumen then become lovers, before continuing their hunt for Chase. As Lumen and Dexter plan to capture Chase, Dexter realizes cameras are in his apartment. Dexter, assuming that Quinn is watching him, waits for him to return to the surveillance van. As Dexter opens the door to capture Quinn, Stan Liddy (Peter Weller), a private investigator Quinn had hired to tail Dexter, stuns Dexter with a taser. After Liddy calls Quinn to bust Dexter, Dexter attacks Liddy and kills him in self-defense, after Liddy tries to stab him.

While Dexter disposes of Liddy’s body, Lumen gets a call from Emily. Emily appears frightened of Chase and threatens to call the police, but she is revealed to be setting a trap to allow Chase to capture them. Dexter returns to the apartment to find Lumen gone. He tracks Chase to the camp where the rape club had started. In a fit of emotion, he accidentally wrecks the stolen car he is driving, allowing Chase to take him prisoner. Chase brings Dexter to the building in which he is holding Lumen. As Chase is about to kill them, Dexter frees himself with a knife he had stashed and immobilizes Chase by stabbing him through his foot and into the floor. Dexter cuts Lumen free and knocks Chase out. When Chase wakes up, Dexter allows Lumen to kill him. While they are still in the kill room, preparing to move the body, Debra arrives on the scene, though her view of Dexter and Lumen is obstructed by a sheet of plastic. Dexter and Lumen, trapped, remain silent. Without requesting their identity, Debra warns them that she is about to call in backup and allows them to flee before the police arrive.

The next day, Lumen tells Dexter that she no longer feels the need to kill, and they cannot be together because Dexter’s homicidal urges will never leave him. She then leaves to return to the life she had before her kidnapping. The season ends with Dexter surrounded by friends and family at Harrison’s first birthday party.

Season six

About a year later, in Season six, Dexter has begun searching for a preschool for Harrison, though his atheism conflicts with the religious preschools to which he applies. He finds a greater understanding through Brother Sam (Mos Def), an ex-con and murderer whom Dexter once considered killing, who has since become a born-again Christian who counsels other ex-cons. Dexter initially sees Brother Sam’s religious conversion as a scam, but Brother Sam proves himself a truly changed man, and even helps Dexter through a crisis when Harrison undergoes an appendectomy.

Shortly afterward, Brother Sam is shot and mortally wounded in his garage. Dexter realizes that a friend of Sam’s, Nick (Germaine De Leon), is responsible, and swears revenge. On his deathbed, Sam forgives Nick and implores Dexter to do the same. Dexter considers sparing Nick when he initially appears remorseful, but that proves to be an act; after Sam refuses to press charges on his deathbed, Nick brags about what he did. An enraged Dexter drowns Nick in the surf, reawakening in him the presence of his dead brother, Brian, who begins to guide him in much the same way that Harry’s presence once had.

Brian convinces Dexter to go after Arthur Mitchell’s son Jonah (Brando Eaton), who appears to have also become a killer. Dexter finally catches Jonah with the intent of killing him, but he relents when he sees that Jonah feels guilty about failing to protect his sister, who committed suicide by slitting an artery in a bathtub, similar to how Mitchell killed his victims. When Jonah and his mother discovered Jonah’s sister, their mother blamed the children for their father’s shortcomings. This enraged Jonah, who then killed his mother. Learning this new information, Dexter rejects Brian and reaffirms the “Code of Harry”, leaving Jonah alive to forgive himself.

In the meantime, Dexter begins investigating “the Doomsday Killer”, a serial killer who models his crimes after the Book of Revelation. Dexter soon finds that the murders are being committed by two people: a fanatically religious college professor named James Gellar (Edward James Olmos) and his protégé, Travis Marshall (Colin Hanks). Dexter tracks Marshall down, but balks at killing him, believing that Marshall has a conscience and is simply being led down the wrong path. Dexter then resolves to save Marshall from himself.

After the death of Marshall’s sister, Dexter follows him to the old church and discovers Gellar’s body in a freezer, concluding that Marshall had been acting alone the whole time, with Gellar as a dissociative identity. After being forced to accept Gellar’s death, Marshall begins to target Dexter, managing to capture him and enact the lake of fire. Dexter escapes, however, and is rescued by a fishing boat carrying illegal immigrants bound for Florida. Marshall kidnaps Harrison to sacrifice him as the “lamb of God” during a solar eclipse, but Dexter rescues Harrison and takes Marshall to the old church. Debra walks into the church—seeking to find Dexter after a recent meeting with a therapist helped her realize that she is in love with her adoptive brother—only to see Dexter kill Marshall.^[27]

Season seven

In the season seven opener, Dexter tells a bewildered Debra that he killed Marshall on impulse after Marshall ambushed him. Debra believes him at first, and helps him destroy the old church, with Marshall’s body inside. A few days later, however, Debra finds Dexter’s knives and collection of blood slides, and asks him point blank if he is a serial killer. Not knowing what else to say, Dexter replies that he is. Debra is horrified, but resolves to help Dexter stop killing by moving in with him and keeping a constant eye on him.^[28]

After weeks under Debra’s surveillance, a stressed out Dexter kidnaps Louis Greene (Josh Cooke), a former coworker with a grudge against him, with the intent of killing him. Dexter relents at the last minute, however, and calls Debra so she can talk him out of it, reassuring her that there is good in him after all.^[29]

Dexter escapes Debra’s watch long enough to dispose of Ray Speltzer (Matt Gerald), a brutal serial killer who had evaded prison on a technicality, and Debra comes to understand why Dexter kills. She makes a deal with him: she will not stop Dexter as long as he does not tell her about it or interfere with Miami-Metro investigations.^[30]

Dexter sets his sights on killing Hannah McKay (Yvonne Strahovski), a serial poisoner, who as a teenager had gone on a cross-country killing spree with her boyfriend. Dexter subdues her and prepares to kill her, but stops when Hannah does not appear to fear him. They are both suddenly overcome with attraction and have sex.^[31] Dexter falls in love with Hannah, who helps him realize that his “Dark Passenger” does not control his life.^[32]

Dexter’s romance with Hannah complicates his relationship with Debra, however. Debra is intent on arresting Hannah for the murder of Sal Price, a crime writer for whom Debra had feelings, and Dexter has trouble reconciling his feelings for his girlfriend with his responsibility to his adoptive sister. To make matters worse, Miami-Metro Captain María LaGuerta (Lauren Velez) discovers a blood slide containing the blood of serial killer Travis Marshall at the scene of his death. Recognizing similarities to the Bay Harbor butcher’s methods, she begins an investigation to determine if the butcher is still alive and seeks to prove Doakes’ innocence. Her suspicions turn toward Dexter when she learns about his boat’s relocation during the Butcher investigation. LaGuerta reopens the Bay Harbor Butcher case, convinced that Doakes was innocent and that Dexter is hiding something. When Dexter tries to kill Hector Estrada (Nestor Serrano), the man who ordered Dexter’s mother’s murder, LaGuerta arrives at the scene, forcing him to let Estrada go so he can escape. Dexter deduces that LaGuerta had orchestrated Estrada’s release from prison to set Dexter up.^[33]

At the beginning of the season, mobster Isaak Sirko (Ray Stevenson) vows to kill Dexter to avenge his lover, Viktor Baskov (Enver Gjokaj), a cop killer and one of Dexter’s victims. Fearing for his family’s safety, Dexter engineers Sirko’s arrest, but Sirko is soon released on bail and resumes his vendetta. Sirko asks for Dexter’s protection against his former associates, who fear that he will testify against them; in return, he promises Dexter that he will let him live. Dexter refuses, but ends up inadvertently coming to Sirko’s aid when one of his former henchmen attacks them both. Dexter kills the mobster, but is too late to save Sirko, who is mortally wounded during the struggle. As he dies, Sirko reassures Dexter that he can still find happiness.^[34]

Debra gets into a near-fatal car accident following a confrontation with Hannah, and insists to Dexter that Hannah poisoned her. Dexter refuses to believe it at first, but he is suspicious enough to order a toxicology screen on Debra’s water bottle. To Dexter’s horror, the results prove that Hannah had spiked Debra’s water with an overdose of Xanax. Left with no other choice, Dexter gives Debra proof that Hannah murdered Price and looks on, heartbroken, as Debra arrests her.^[33]

LaGuerta has Dexter arrested for the Bay Harbor Butcher murders, but Dexter is released thanks to evidence he had tampered with to throw her off his trail. Dexter is certain that LaGuerta will not give up, however, and resolves to kill her, even though doing so would be a violation of his “code”. He kidnaps and kills Estrada to lure LaGuerta in, and then knocks her unconscious, planning to shoot her to make it look like Estrada killed her. At that moment, Debra bursts in, holding Dexter at gunpoint and begging him not to go through with it. LaGuerta regains consciousness and urges Debra to kill Dexter. Seeing no way out, Dexter resigns himself to his fate and tells Debra to “do what you have to do”. Much to Dexter’s surprise, however, Debra turns the gun on LaGuerta, and shoots her dead. As the countdown to the new year begins, Dexter wonders if this is the “beginning of the end”.^[35]

Season eight

The eighth season opens six months later, with Dexter growing increasingly worried about Debra, who has quit the police force and spiraled into depression and self-destructive behavior. Dexter goes to her new job as a private investigator and learns that Debra is pursuing, and sleeping with, drug dealer Andrew Briggs (Rhys Coiro). When Dexter confronts her, Debra tells him that she wishes she had killed him instead of LaGuerta. A few days later, Dexter learns that an assassin, El Sapo (Nick Gomez), is going to kill Briggs and Debra, and Dexter goes to Debra’s hotel to save her. A scuffle ensues, in which Dexter kills Briggs. He begs Debra to come with him, but she refuses.^[36] Soon afterward, El Sapo is found dead, and Dexter is called in to investigate. He discovers that some of the blood at the scene belongs to Debra. She admits to killing El Sapo, and Dexter reluctantly covers up the crime.^[37]

Dexter meets Dr. Evelyn Vogel (Charlotte Rampling), a neuropsychiatrist consulting with Miami Metro about a serial killer dubbed “the Brain Surgeon” who removes parts of his victims’ brains. Vogel, a specialist in the neuropathology of psychopaths, tells Dexter that she knew Harry, and helped him to invent Dexter’s “code” because she believes that psychopaths can play useful roles in society. Vogel says the “Brain Surgeon” is one of her former patients, and asks Dexter to kill him before he goes after her.^[36]

Quinn calls Dexter to tell him that Debra has shown up at Miami Metro, blind drunk, and confessed to killing LaGuerta. Panicked, Dexter rushes over with Vogel in tow, and knocks Debra unconscious with a low dose of the tranquilizer he uses on his victims. He realizes he cannot help Debra and asks Vogel to treat her.^[38]

Dexter starts looking into another of Vogel’s former patients, serial killer A.J. Yates (Aaron McCusker). He saves one of Yates’ victims and confronts the killer, who escapes. The following day, Debra asks Dexter to take a drive with her so they can talk. During the drive, she intentionally crashes the car into the bay, intent on killing them both. Debra survives, however, and saves Dexter’s life.^[39] When Yates kidnaps Vogel, the two of them put aside their differences to track him down. Dexter kills Yates to keep him from harming Debra, and he and Debra reconcile.^[40]

Dexter sets his sights on a new victim: Zach Hamilton (Sam Underwood), a teenager from a wealthy family who murdered his father’s mistress and is now preparing to kill his father. Dexter kidnaps Zach, who admits that he enjoys killing and will do it again. Seeing in Zach a kindred spirit, Dexter promises to teach him how to kill without getting caught.^[41] When Dexter’s neighbor Cassie Jollenston (Bethany Joy Lenz) is murdered, he at first believes Zach is responsible and decides to kill him. Dexter confronts Zach, who swears that he did not target Cassie, but another murderer, giving Dexter hope that Zach can be “trained” after all. That hope is dashed, however, when Dexter finds Zach’s dead body in his apartment — with a piece of his brain missing.^[42]

Hannah reappears in Dexter’s life when she non-lethally poisons him and Debra to get his attention.^[41] Dexter investigates and finds that she has changed her name and married Miles Castner (Julian Sands), a wealthy businessman. Dexter goes to see Hannah, who says she had wanted him to kill Castner, but changed her mind after realizing she is still in love with Dexter. Dexter goes to Castner’s boat to protect him, but finds that Hannah has already killed him. The two of them dispose of the body, and Dexter arranges for her to leave the country.^[43] The night before Hannah leaves, however, Dexter and she have sex, and he realizes that he is still in love with her. They renew their relationship, and plan to run away together to Argentina.^[44]

After investigating, Dexter discovers that Zach’s killer is Vogel’s blood relative. Vogel tells Dexter that she had a son, Daniel, who as a teenager murdered his younger brother Richard before apparently dying in a fire. Dexter discovers that Daniel set the fire himself to fake his own death, and that he is now living under the identity of Oliver Saxon (Darri Ingolfsson)—Cassie’s boyfriend at the time of her murder. Dexter suspects that Saxon is the “Brain Surgeon” and warns Vogel, who tells him to stay out of it; Dexter is unaware that she is sheltering her son.^[44] Dexter makes preparations to move while hunting Saxon, the last “loose end”. He goes to Vogel’s house to make sure she is safe — only to see Saxon slit her throat.^[45]

Days later, Saxon shows up at Dexter’s apartment and offers a truce: he will spare Dexter’s family if Dexter will leave him alone. Dexter pretends to accept, but is now more determined than ever to kill him. He finds proof of Saxon’s murders, which he turns over to the police so that Saxon will be forced to come after him before he leaves Miami. Dexter then enlists Debra’s help in subduing Saxon and prepares to kill him. At the last moment, however, Dexter realizes that his love for Hannah is stronger than his need to kill, and he spares Saxon’s life. He calls Debra so she can arrest Saxon, and says his goodbyes to her and Harry. After he leaves, however, Saxon escapes his bindings and shoots Debra in the stomach.^[46]

In the series finale, “Remember the Monsters?“, Dexter’s flight to Argentina is delayed by a hurricane, and he tells Hannah and Harrison to go on without him, intending to take care of Saxon. When he learns what has happened to Debra, Dexter rushes to her side at the hospital, but she tells him to go on and live a good life. Moments later, however, she suffers a major stroke that leaves her in a persistent vegetative state. Dexter blames himself, and realizes he will always destroy those he loves; he sees at last he can never have a happy life.^[47]

After Saxon is arrested, Dexter kills him in his cell, and apparently convinces Quinn and Batista that he acted in self-defense (it is implied that they knew what really happened). Dexter goes to see Debra one last time, tearfully turns off her life support, and buries her at sea. He then fakes his own death by wrecking his boat. The series’ final scene reveals that he has assumed a new identity in Oregon as a lumberjack and begun a new life, alone.^[47]

Dexter: New Blood

Approximately 10 years after the original series’ finale, Dexter has moved to the fictional small town of Iron Lake, New York, posing as Jim Lindsay, a local shopkeeper. He is in a relationship with Angela Bishop (Julia Jones), the town’s chief of police, and has abstained from killing for almost a decade. Debra has replaced Harry in Dexter’s mind as his “Dark Passenger”, albeit one who advises him on ways not to kill. He “falls off the wagon”, however, when he impulsively murders Matt Caldwell (Steve M. Roberts), an arrogant stockbroker who once killed five people and got away with it thanks to his family’s wealth and political clout.^[48]

Caldwell is officially considered a missing person, and his father Kurt (Clancy Brown) begins nosing around the investigation. Dexter destroys the corpse and alters the crime scene to make it look like Matt left town after being injured. That night, he runs into Kurt, who drunkenly claims to have gotten a FaceTime message from his son. Unbeknownst to Dexter, Kurt is a serial killer who preys on runaway teenage girls, and is trying to get the search called off so the police will not find his victims’ bodies.^[49]

At the same time, a now teenage Harrison (Jack Alcott) comes back into Dexter’s life, having tracked him to Iron Lake. He says he lived in a series of foster homes after Hannah died of pancreatic cancer.^[48] Over Debra’s objections, Dexter once again becomes a father to the boy, who quickly becomes a popular student and star of his school’s wrestling team, and befriends Angela’s adopted daughter, Audrey (Johnny Sequoyah).^[50] Harrison also causes Dexter to depart somewhat from his “code”; when Harrison nearly dies of a fentanyl overdose at a party, Dexter murders the drug dealer who sold him the pills by forcing him to ingest a lethal amount of the drug instead of his usual killing method, a stab wound to the chest.^[51]

Harrison is injured in a knife fight with another student, Ethan Williams (Christian Dell’Edera), whom he badly wounds. Harrison claims that Ethan told him he was planning a school shooting and stabbed him, and that he stabbed Ethan back in self-defense. When it is discovered that Ethan was indeed planning to kill several of his classmates, Harrison is hailed as a hero, but Dexter doubts his story. Using his training as a blood spatter analyst, Dexter reconstructs the fight and determines that Harrison stabbed Ethan unprovoked, and then inflicted a superficial stab wound upon himself to make it look like Ethan attacked him. Dexter searches Harrison’s room and finds a bloody straight razor—the same kind of blade that Arthur Mitchell used to kill Rita—and realizes that his son has inherited his homicidal tendencies.^[52]

During a chance meeting with Angel Batista (now Captain of Miami Metro) at a police conference in New York City, Angela learns about Dexter Morgan’s supposed death, and after some investigation discovers the true identity of “Jim Lindsay”.^[51] Dexter tells her the truth about faking his death—while leaving out that he is a serial killer—but she breaks up with him regardless. This causes awkwardness between them after she catches Harrison in bed with Audrey.^[53]

Meanwhile, true crime podcaster Molly Park (Jamie Chung) arrives in town to do a story about Matt Caldwell, and Dexter discovers that she did a series on the Bay Harbor Butcher. He becomes obsessed with finding out what she knows, especially after Harrison reveals that he learned the truth about Rita’s death from her show. He spies on her talking to Kurt, who lies that his son is hiding out at the family cabin, in order to lure her out there and kill her. Dexter reluctantly saves her and gets a closer look at what he correctly suspects to be Kurt’s killing ground.^[53] Dexter grows alarmed as Kurt becomes a mentor to Harrison, especially after he encourages the boy to break another student’s arm during a wrestling match.^[53]

When Angela finds the mummified corpse of her friend Iris, who disappeared 25 years earlier, she asks Dexter to analyze the remains, and tells him that she suspects Kurt of killing her. Dexter leads her toward investigating Kurt as a serial killer in hopes that exposing his crimes will destroy his influence over Harrison. She arrests Kurt for Iris’ murder, but Kurt surprises her by saying that his late father, Roger, committed the crime. (A flashback reveals that Kurt did indeed kill her, however.) When Kurt is released, he tries to intimidate Dexter by hinting that he knows he killed Matt, and Dexter realizes that he will have to kill Kurt to protect Harrison and himself.^[54]

Kurt pays one of his truckers, Elric Kane (Shuler Hensley), to kidnap Dexter so he can kill him and Harrison, but Dexter manages to evade and kill him. Dexter arrives at Kurt’s cabin just in time to save Harrison from Kurt, who runs off. He tells Harrison that they have the same “Dark Passenger”, and for the first time truly bonds with his son.^[55] At first, Dexter tells Harrison that he merely “confronts” murderers to make them stop killing, but Harrison eventually figures out that Dexter kills his victims. Harrison reveals that he remembers seeing Mitchell kill Rita, and that he has been consumed with a violent rage ever since. He then says that Kurt deserves to die, and father and son set out to kill him.^[56]

Together, they find Kurt’s victims, including Park, perfectly preserved and displayed in a bunker underneath his house. Dexter intentionally triggers an alarm to let Kurt know they found his hiding place. As intended, Kurt rushes back to his house, where Dexter incapacitates him and prepares a kill site in Kurt’s own bunker. When Kurt claims that he “saved” his victims from lives of pain and suffering, Dexter kills him as Harrison watches, and resolves to teach him “the Code of Harry”. They return to Dexter’s cabin to find that Kurt had burned it down the night before. They stay with Angela and Audrey, now Harrison’s girlfriend, and start to bond as a family—until Angela finds evidence, left by Kurt, exposing Dexter as Matt’s murderer. She then sees a connection between that proof and new evidence uncovered by Park on the Bay Harbor Butcher case, and realizes that Dexter is the killer.^[56]

In the finale episode, “Sins of the Father“, Angela arrests Dexter for Matt’s murder. At the station, Angela tells Dexter that she suspects him of being the Bay Harbor Butcher. While she interrogates him at the station, Dexter says that Kurt killed Matt and is framing him, and tells her she can find proof that Kurt murdered numerous women in the bunker. Distracted, Angela leaves the station to go to Kurt’s cabin. Dexter lures her deputy, Logan (Alano Miller), closer to his cell and then puts him in a headlock, demanding Logan release him. Logan reaches for his gun and attempts to shoot Dexter, but misses. Dexter breaks Logan’s neck, steals his keys and flees the station after having contacted Harrison using Logan’s phone.

He meets up with Harrison and tells his son to leave town with him. Harrison sees blood on Dexter’s face, however, and figures out that he killed Logan, Harrison’s wrestling coach who had been a friend and mentor to him. Horrified, Harrison says that Dexter’s “code” is a lie he tells himself to justify the murders he enjoys committing, and that if not for him, Rita and Debra would be alive and he would have grown up normal and happy. Dexter reflects on all the innocent people in his life who have died because of him, and finally sees that he can never be the good man and father that he wants to be. He tells Harrison that the only way out for both of them is for Harrison to kill him. After a moment’s hesitation, Harrison shoots Dexter in the chest with the hunting rifle Dexter gave him for Christmas. Dexter tells Harrison he “did good”, and sees Debra holding his hand. Moments later, Angela arrives at the scene and allows Harrison to escape. Harrison leaves Iron Lake, and reads the goodbye letter Dexter wrote to Hannah 10 years earlier, telling her to “let me die so my son can live”.^[57]

Dexter: Original Sin

The first episode of the prequel series Dexter: Original Sin, which portrays a young Dexter’s evolution into a serial killer, reveals that Dexter is taken to a hospital after Harrison shot him, and that he briefly dies in surgery but emergency room doctors manage to revive him as he begins narrating his life as it flashes before his eyes.^[58]

The series portrays Dexter in his early 20s, living with Harry (Christian Slater) and the teenage Debra (Molly Brown) a year after Harry’s wife Doris (Jasper Lewis) died of cancer. As in the novels and original TV series, Harry teaches Dexter how to kill people who “deserve it” without getting caught, beginning with a nurse (Tanya Clarke) who is killing her patients with morphine overdoses. The series also portrays Dexter beginning work at Miami Metro as an intern and first meeting Maria LaGuerta (Christina Milian), Angel Batista (James Martinez), and Vince Masuka (Alex Shimizu).

Dexter: Resurrection

Taken to the hospital after his shooting, Dexter is left in a coma for ten weeks in which he encounters visions of various people encouraging him to live. After awakening, Dexter undergoes extensive physical therapy to recover from his injuries and learns from Teddy Reed that Matt Caldwell’s death was ultimately blamed on Kurt while Logan’s was ruled to be self-defense after the bullet hole was found in Dexter’s cell. Angela backtracked on Dexter being the Bay Harbor Butcher and left town, but leaves Dexter a message ordering him to leave Iron Lake and implying that her recanting is repayment for Dexter solving the murder of Angela’s friend Iris. Dexter is reunited with Angel for the first time in ten years who legally resurrects Dexter, but his former best friend is now suspicious that Dexter truly is the Bay Harbor Butcher. Dexter later learns of a murder in New York City matching his MO and the Code of Harry and realizes that Harrison is the culprit. Stealing the car of another patient who had died of a heart attack, Dexter heads to New York to find his son.

In New York, Dexter keeps his distance from Harrison while protecting him. Reclaiming his identity as Dexter Morgan, he rents an apartment and gets a job as a rideshare driver although Dexter remains in a weakened state from the shooting. Learning of a serial killer going by the Dark Passenger, Dexter resumes his killing spree once again. However, in a surprising turn of events, Dexter is revealed to have grown to care about other people to the point that he again prioritizes saving the killer’s next victim over getting his target, something he did in the original series without much reflection on it. This allows the Dark Passenger to escape in Dexter’s weakened state, but without hurting anyone.

Other formats

In conjunction with the TV show, Showtime produced an animated web series, called Dexter: Early Cuts. This series was a prequel and portrayed Dexter’s early years as a serial killer.^[59]

Jeff Lindsay has written two comic miniseries for Marvel featuring Dexter Morgan: Dexter and Dexter: Down Under.^[60]

Reception

Critical reception

Michael C. Hall‘s portrayal of Dexter Morgan has received critical acclaim and has won many awards. The New York Daily News reported that it was “a central character and performance that takes your breath away”. The Hollywood Reporter noted that “Hall… is brilliant at conveying the subtle complexity of Dexter”. The Detroit Free Press gave season two of the series a 70/100 and said: “Hall invests strange, demented Dexter with real heart and humanity”. Variety said that “Michael C. Hall’s portrayal of the title character remains a towering achievement, one that eclipses the show’s other shortcomings and rough patches”. The San Francisco Chronicle said of the actor that “the allure of the series always has been and always will be Hall, who manages to make a killer (who kills only people who deserve it, mostly) likable, believable, engaging and funny”. Joshua Alston with Newsweek mentioned the character, along with Tony Soprano and Jack Bauer, as an example of the growing popularity of antiheroes.^[61] Commenting that Hall was “adept at portraying repressives”, Ginia Bellafonte of The New York Times said this vigilante operates on the “stylized libertarianism that sees institutional failure wherever it looks”.^[62] Calling Dexter “the thinking woman’s killer”, Wendy Dennis of Maclean’s remarked that the show enjoys a high female audience because they are attracted to damaged men who are still sweet, handsome, and dependable.^[63] He appeared in Comcast‘s list of TV’s Most Intriguing Characters.^[64] Paste ranked Dexter Morgan number 6 on their list of the 20 Best Characters of 2011.^[65]

Michael C. Hall has received many accolades for his portrayal of Dexter Morgan. In 2007, Hall was honored with a Television Critics Association Award for Individual Achievement in Drama. In addition, he was nominated five times for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012). He was nominated five times for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama (in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011) and won in 2010. He was nominated five times for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series (in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012), and won in 2010. He has been nominated thrice for the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Television Series: Drama (in 2006, 2008, and 2010) and won in 2007. He has been nominated seven times for the Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television (in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013) and won in 2006.

Connections to actual crimes

Mark Twitchell

Connections were established between Dexter Morgan and Mark Twitchell, of Edmonton, Alberta, during his first-degree murder trial. After weeks of testimony and evidence presented in court, Twitchell was found guilty of the planned and deliberate murder of 38-year-old Johnny Altinger on April 12, 2011.^[66] Twitchell, an aspiring filmmaker, had adopted the persona “Dexter Morgan” on Facebook and made a movie that was similar to how Dexter operates in the TV show.^[67] Prosecutors alleged that Twitchell had begun a double life inspired by Dexter.^[68] Detective Mark Anstey of the Edmonton Police Service was quoted as saying, “We have a lot of information to suggest he definitely idolizes Dexter”, and Twitchell had posted a Facebook status stating that he believed he had “way too much in common with Dexter Morgan”.^[69][70] A nonfiction book on the case, The Devil’s Cinema, detailed how Twitchell had written Facebook status updates under his Dexter Morgan account, including, “Dexter is patiently waiting for his next victim … uh, play date buddy”, but his followers did not know how true these posts really were.^[71]

Andrew Conley

Andrew Conley said the show inspired him to strangle his 10-year-old brother.^[72] In an affidavit filed in Ohio County court, police said Andrew stated that he “watches a show called Dexter on Showtime, about a serial killer, and he stated, ‘I feel just like him.'”.^[73] Even further, after killing his brother, he put a plastic bag over his brother’s head, mimicking a practice that Dexter ritualistically commits to dispose of his victims.^[74]

Notes

^ a: While Harry finds the boys in the shipping container on the television show, the investigating officer who finds Dexter is never specified in the novels.
^ b:  Brian was ultimately sent to a mental institution for disturbed children. The first novel implies that Harry chose not to adopt Brian because he was older and more likely to be traumatized; in the TV program, both Brian and Tom Matthews, Harry’s best friend and former superior, state this to be true.

References

1.  Jackson, Josh (December 5, 2011). “The 20 Best TV Characters of 2011”. Paste. Archived from the original on June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
2.  James Manos, Jr. (December 18, 2011). “This Is the Way the World Ends“. Dexter. Season 6. Episode 12. Showtime.
3.  “Our Father“. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 1. September 28, 2008. Showtime.
4.  “Resistance is Futile“. Dexter. Season 2. Episode 9. November 25, 2007. Showtime.
5.  “Born Free“. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 12. December 17, 2006. Showtime.
6.  “Truth Be Told”. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 11. October 12, 2006. Showtime.
7.  “The British Invasion”. Dexter. Season 2. Episode 9. October 14, 2007. Showtime.
8.  “My Bad”. Dexter. Season 5. Episode 1. September 26, 2010. Showtime.
9.  Cheeda, Saim (2020-11-19). “Dexter: 10 Ways Dexter Morgan Got Worse & Worse”. Screen Rant. Retrieved 2024-11-19.
10.  Alexander, Bryan (January 9, 2022). “No, you’re not dreaming that ‘Dexter: New Blood’ finale shocker: Breaking down the big deaths”. USA Today.
11.  “Return to Sender“. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 06. May 11, 2006. Showtime.
12.  “Popping Cherry”. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 03. October 15, 2006. Showtime.
13.  “Waiting to Exhale”. Dexter. Season 2. Episode 2. October 7, 2007. Showtime.
14.  “Shrink Wrap”. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 8. November 19, 2006. Showtime.
15.  “Father Knows Best”. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 9. November 26, 2006. Showtime.
16.  “Seeing Red”. Dexter. Season 1. Episode 10. June 12, 2006. Showtime.
17.  “Finding Freebo”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 2. October 5, 2008. Showtime.
18.  “The Damage a Man Can Do”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 8. November 16, 2008. Showtime.
19.  “About Last Night”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 9. November 23, 2008. Showtime.
20.  “I Had a Dream”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 11. December 7, 2008. Showtime.
21.  “Do You Take Dexter Morgan?”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 12. December 14, 2008. Showtime.
22.  “The Lion Sleeps Tonight”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 3. October 12, 2008. Showtime.
23.  “Easy as Pie”. Dexter. Season 3. Episode 7. November 9, 2008. Showtime.
24.  “Living the Dream”. Dexter. Season 4. Episode 1. September 19, 2009. Showtime.
25.  “Hungry Man”. Dexter. Season 4. Episode 9. November 22, 2009. Showtime.
26.  “The Getaway”. Dexter. Season 4. Episode 12. December 13, 2009. Showtime.
27.  “This Is the Way the World Ends“. Dexter. Season 6. Episode 12. December 18, 2011. Showtime.
28.  “Are You…?“. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 1. September 30, 2012. Showtime.
29.  “Buck the System”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 3. October 14, 2012. Showtime.
30.  “Run”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 4. October 21, 2012. Showtime.
31.  “Do the Wrong Thing”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 6. November 4, 2012. Showtime.
32.  “The Dark… Whatever”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 10. December 2, 2012. Showtime.
33.  “Do You See What I See?”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 11. December 9, 2012. Showtime.
34.  “Helter Skelter”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 9. October 25, 2012. Showtime.
35.  “Surprise, Motherfucker!”. Dexter. Season 7. Episode 12. December 16, 2012. Showtime.
36.  “A Beautiful Day”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 1. June 30, 2013. Showtime.
37.  “Every Silver Lining…”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 2. July 7, 2013. Showtime.
38.  “What’s Eating Dexter Morgan?“. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 3. July 13, 2013. Showtime.
39.  “Scar Tissue”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 4. July 14, 2013. Showtime.
40.  “This Little Piggy”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 5. July 21, 2013. Showtime.
41.  “A Little Reflection”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 6. August 4, 2012. Showtime.
42.  “Are We There Yet?”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 8. August 18, 2013. Showtime.
43.  “Dress Code”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 7. August 11, 2012. Showtime.
44.  “Make Your Own Kind of Music”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 9. August 25, 2012. Showtime.
45.  “Goodbye Miami”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 10. September 8, 2013. Showtime.
46.  “Monkey in a Box”. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 11. September 15, 2013. Showtime.
47.  “Remember the Monsters?“. Dexter. Season 8. Episode 12. September 22, 2013. Showtime.
48.  “Cold Snap“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 1. November 7, 2021. Showtime.
49.  “Smoke Signals“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 3. November 21, 2021. Showtime.
50.  “Storm of Fuck“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 2. November 14, 2021. Showtime.
51.  “Runaway“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 5. December 5, 2021. Showtime.
52.  “H Is for Hero“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 4. November 28, 2021. Showtime.
53.  “Too Many Tuna Sandwiches“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 6. December 12, 2021. Showtime.
54.  “Skin of Her Teeth“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 7. December 19, 2021. Showtime.
55.  “Unfair Game“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 8. December 26, 2021. Showtime.
56.  “The Family Business“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 9. January 2, 2022. Showtime.
57.  “Sins of the Father“. Dexter: New Blood. Season 1. Episode 10. January 9, 2022. Showtime.
58.  Strauss, Jackie (December 13, 2024). “Inside Michael C. Hall’s ‘Dexter’ Return”. The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved December 13, 2024.
59.  Dexter – Early Cuts | SHOWTIME
60.  Dexter Down Under (2014 – Present) | Comic Books | Comics | Marvel.com
61.  Alston, Joshua (January 12, 2009). “Too Much of A Bad Thing”. Newsweek. Vol. 2, no. 153. New York City: Newsweek Media Group. pp. 58–59. Archived from the original on July 25, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2018 – via Highbeam Research.
62.  Bellafante, Ginia (November 23, 2007). “Sympathy for the Devil: The Nice-Guy Serial Killer Next Door”. The New York Times. New York City. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
63.  Dennis, Wendy (March 19, 2007). “The thinking woman’s killer”. Maclean’s. Vol. 10, no. 120. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Rogers Media. pp. 51–52.
64.  “TV’s Most Intriguing Characters”. Comcast. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
65.  Jackson, Josh (December 5, 2011). “The 20 Best TV Characters of 2011”. Paste. Avondale Estates, Georgia: Wolfgang’s Vault. Archived from the original on June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
66.  Zabcek, Alexandra; Gelinas, Ben (April 12, 2011). “Twitchell guilty of first-degree murder”. Edmonton Journal. Edmonton, Alberta: Postmedia Network. Archived from the original on November 3, 2012. Retrieved April 12, 2011.
67.  Zabjek, Alexandra; Gelinas, Ben (April 16, 2011). “A star only in his own warped mind”. Edmonton Journal. Edmonton, Alberta: Postmedia Network. Archived from the original on October 31, 2011. Retrieved October 4, 2011.
68.  Bennett, Dean (March 23, 2011). “Edmonton filmmaker Mark Twitchell denied knowing murder victim: trial”. The Canadian Press. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on March 11, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
69.  “last link on the left > deadmonton > johnny brian altinger”. LastLinkontheLeft.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-26. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
70.  “Would-be victim sought in case of filmmaker charged with murder”. CBC.ca. November 3, 2008. Archived from the original on December 6, 2008. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
71.  MacKenzie, Alan (March 31, 2012). “When a twisted life imitates twisted art”. Winnipeg Free Press. Winnipeg, Canada: FP Canadian Newspapers Limited. Retrieved April 8, 2012.
72.  Martinez, Jose (December 4, 2009). “Andrew Conley, 17, said TV killer ‘Dexter’ inspired him to strangle 10-year-old brother: ‘I had to'”. New York Daily News. New York City: Tribune Publishing Company. Retrieved May 18, 2010.
73.  “Prosecutors: Ind. Teen Felt Hunger To Kill”. WLWT.com. 2009-12-03. Archived from the original on 2012-03-10. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
74.  Wilson, Charles (October 15, 2010). “Teen who strangled brother gets life in prison”. NBC News. New York City. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 5, 2015. Retrieved April 28, 2018.

I wonder when I go, will I beg, will I plead for mercy
or just accept my fate?

Over the hill the pearly gates await, And there I’ll stand
my hat in hand

Hey Peter

Please, St Peter put a good word in for me.
Please, have mercy, don’t deny my woeful plea .

I’ll stoop and wash your feet,
anoint your toes
with the finest oil,
or my tears if you prefer.

I’d walk on water for you if I could
I’d fill your fishing nets
with bountiful rewards and even more

Please, St Peter put a good word in for me.
Don’t deny my final plea

I’ve tried to be a rock that rolls with temptations
and the trials and tribulations, that He sees fit.
But the road to Heaven is filled with potholes
Can I have another chance?
Please kind sir can you give me one more chance?
Peter one more – only one more chance?

Only one more chance I beg of you.

I’ve tried to be a rock that rolls with temptations
and the trials and tribulations, that He sees fit.
But the road to Heaven is filled with potholes
Can I have another chance?
Please St Peter can you give me one more chance?
Only one more chance I beg of you.

This song was released on the Horse Latitudes album. The stillness of the late-night hospital room is broken only by the gentle pulse of monitors. The air is thick with the overpowering perfume of flowers—an offering of comfort that feels almost intrusive. It’s quiet, but not peaceful.

Darren Garrett on vocals on this song about the TV series Dexter. Released as track one on the Horse Latitudes album.

Dexter is an American crime drama television series that initially aired on Showtime from October 1, 2006, to September 22, 2013. Set in Miami, the series centers on Dexter Morgan (Michael C. Hall), a forensic technician specializing in blood spatter analysis for the fictional Miami Metro Police Department, who leads a secret parallel life as a vigilante serial killer, hunting down murderers inadequately punished by the justice system due to corruption or legal technicalities. The show’s first season was derived from the novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter (2004), the first in a series of novels by Jeff Lindsay. It was adapted for television by James Manos Jr., who wrote the first episode.

The series enjoyed mostly positive reviews throughout its run. The show has received multiple awards, including two Golden Globes won by Hall and John Lithgow for their roles as Dexter Morgan and Arthur Mitchell, respectively.

The fourth season aired its season finale on December 13, 2009, to a record-breaking audience of 2.6 million viewers, making it the most-watched original series episode ever on Showtime at that time. The eighth season originally served as the final season of Dexter ; the season premiere was the most watched Dexter episode, with more than 3 million viewers total, while the series finale drew 2.8 million viewers, the largest audience in Showtime’s history.^[1]

Dexter has continued through an expanded franchise with further series. The sequel series Dexter: New Blood aired from November 2021 to January 2022, with Hall reprising the title role and Clyde Phillips as showrunner. It is followed by the sequel Dexter: Resurrection, released in July 2025. The prequel series Dexter: Original Sin premiered in December 2024, starring Patrick Gibson as Dexter. Trinity Killer, a spin-off prequel series, is also in development.

Plot

Orphaned at age three, when he witnessed his mother’s brutal murder with a chainsaw, Dexter (Michael C. Hall) was adopted by Miami police officer Harry Morgan (James Remar). Recognizing the boy’s trauma and the subsequent development of his sociopathic tendencies, Harry trained Dexter to channel his gruesome bloodlust into vigilantism, killing only heinous criminals who slip through the criminal justice system. To cover his prolific trail of homicides, Dexter gains employment as a forensic analyst, specializing in blood splatter pattern analysis, with the Miami Metro Police Department. Dexter is extremely cautious and circumspect; he wears gloves and uses plastic-wrapped “kill rooms”, carves up the corpses, and disposes of them in the Atlantic Ocean’s Gulf Stream to reduce his chances of detection. Dexter juggles his two personas, recognizing each as a distinct part of himself that must cohesively work as one. He depends on their interaction as a means of survival and normality. Although his homicidal tendencies are deeply unyielding, as he originally claims (via narration), throughout the series he strives to feel (and in some cases does feel) normal emotions and maintains his appearance as a socially responsible human being.

Episodes

Main article: List of Dexter episodes

The original run of Dexter consists of eight seasons, and aired from October 1, 2006, to September 22, 2013.^[2] The first continuation, a limited series subtitled New Blood, aired from November 7, 2021, to January 9, 2022. The second continuation, subtitled Resurrection, premiered on July 11, 2025, and is planned to contain multiple seasons.

Season	Episodes		Originally released
			First released	Last released
1	12		October 1, 2006	December 17, 2006
2	12		September 30, 2007	December 16, 2007
3	12		September 28, 2008	December 14, 2008
4	12		September 27, 2009	December 13, 2009
5	12		September 26, 2010	December 12, 2010
6	12		October 2, 2011	December 18, 2011
7	12		September 30, 2012	December 16, 2012
8	12		June 30, 2013	September 22, 2013
New Blood	10		November 7, 2021	January 9, 2022
Resurrection	10		July 11, 2025	September 5, 2025

Cast and crew

Cast

See also: List of Dexter characters

Besides Hall playing the title character, the show’s supporting cast includes Jennifer Carpenter as Dexter’s adoptive sister and co-worker (and later boss) Debra, and James Remar as Dexter’s adoptive father, Harry Morgan. Dexter’s co-workers include Lauren Vélez as Lieutenant (later Captain) María LaGuerta, Dexter and Debra’s supervisor, David Zayas as Detective Sergeant (later Lieutenant) Angel Batista, and C. S. Lee as lab tech Vince Masuka (promoted to title credits in season two).

Erik King portrayed the troubled Sgt James Doakes for the show’s first two seasons. Desmond Harrington joined the cast in season three as Joey Quinn; his name was promoted to the title credits as of season four. Geoff Pierson plays Captain Tom Matthews of Miami Metro Homicide. Julie Benz starred as Dexter’s girlfriend, then wife, Rita in seasons one to four, with a guest appearance in season five. Rita’s children, Astor and Cody, are played by Christina Robinson and Preston Bailey (who replaced Daniel Goldman after the first season). Dexter’s infant son Harrison is played by twins, Evan and Luke Kruntchev, through season seven; in season eight, Harrison was played by Jadon Wells. Aimee Garcia plays Batista’s younger sister, Jamie.^[3]

Notable appearances in season one are Christian Camargo as Rudy and Mark Pellegrino as Rita’s abusive ex-husband Paul. Jaime Murray portrayed Lila Tournay in season two, a physically attractive but unhinged British artist who becomes obsessed with Dexter. Keith Carradine, as Special FBI Agent Frank Lundy, and Jimmy Smits, as ADA Miguel Prado, each appeared in season-long character arcs in seasons two and three, respectively. David Ramsey, who plays confidential informant Anton Briggs in season three, returned in season four, becoming romantically involved with Debra Morgan. John Lithgow joined the cast in season four as the “Trinity Killer“. Carradine returned in season four, reprising his role as newly retired FBI Special Agent Frank Lundy, who was hunting the Trinity Killer. Courtney Ford was featured in season four as an ambitious reporter who mixes business with pleasure, getting romantically involved with Quinn while simultaneously fishing for sources and stories. Julia Stiles joined the cast in season five as Lumen Pierce, a woman who gets involved in a complex relationship with Dexter after the tragedy that culminated the previous season. Season five also had Jonny Lee Miller cast as the motivational speaker Jordan Chase, Peter Weller cast as Stan Liddy, a corrupt narcotics cop, and Maria Doyle Kennedy cast as Sonya, Harrison’s nanny. In season six, Mos Def was cast as Brother Sam, a convicted murderer turned born-again Christian, and Edward James Olmos and Colin Hanks guest-starred as Professor James Gellar and Travis Marshall, members of a murderous apocalyptic cult. Seasons seven and eight featured multiple guest stars, including Ray Stevenson as Ukrainian mob boss Isaak Sirko, a man with a personal vendetta against Dexter; Yvonne Strahovski as Hannah McKay, the former accomplice of a spree killer; Jason Gedrick as strip club owner George Novikov, also part of the mob; and Charlotte Rampling as Dr. Evelyn Vogel, a neuropsychiatrist who takes an interest in Dexter; Ronny Cox as the Tooth Fairy killer; Sean Patrick Flanery as Jacob Elway, a private investigator whom Debra works for.

Margo Martindale had a recurring role as Camilla Figg, a records office worker who was close friends with Dexter’s adoptive parents. JoBeth Williams portrayed Rita’s suspicious mother, Gail Brandon, in four episodes of season two. Anne Ramsay portrayed defense attorney Ellen Wolf, Miguel’s nemesis. Valerie Cruz played a recurring role as Miguel’s wife, Sylvia. In season six, Billy Brown was cast as transferred-in Detective Mike Anderson to replace Debra after her promotion to lieutenant. Josh Cooke played Louis Greene, a lab tech and Masuka’s intern, in seasons six and seven, and Darri Ingolfsson played Oliver Saxon in season eight.

Crew

The main creative forces behind the series were executive producers Daniel Cerone, Clyde Phillips, and Melissa Rosenberg. Cerone left the show after its second season. Executive producer and showrunner Phillips departed the series, after a record-setting season-four finale, to spend more time with his family; 24 co-executive producer Chip Johannessen took over Phillips’ post.^[4] Head writer Melissa Rosenberg left after season four, as well.

After the conclusion of season five, Chip Johannessen was revealed to be leaving the show after a single run,^[5] and Scott Buck would take over as showrunner from season six onward.

Production

Exterior filming

Although the series is set in Miami, Florida, many of the exterior scenes are filmed in Los Angeles and Long Beach, California. Many landmark buildings and locations in Long Beach are featured throughout the series.^[6] The finale episode’s airport scene takes place at Ontario International Airport in Ontario, California.^[7]

Marketing

In preparation for the United Kingdom launch of the series, Fox UK experimented with an SMS-based viral marketing campaign. Mobile phone owners received the following unsolicited SMS messages addressed to them by name with no identifying information other than being from “Dexter”: “Hello (name). I’m heading to the UK sooner than you might think. Dexter.” The SMS message was followed by an email directing the user to an online video “news report” about a recent spree of killings. Using on-the-fly video manipulation, the user’s name and a personalized message were worked into the report—the former written in blood on a wall near the crime scene, the latter added to a note in an evidence bag carried past the camera. While the marketing campaign raised the show’s profile, it proved unpopular with many mobile owners, who saw this as spam advertising aimed at mobile phones. In response to complaints about the SMS element of the campaign, Fox issued the following statement:

The text message you received was part of an internet viral campaign for our newest show Dexter. However, it was not us who sent you the text, but one of your friends. We do not have a database of viewer phone numbers. The text message went along with a piece on the net that you can then send on to other people you know. If you go to [the website] you will see the page that one of your friends has filled in to send you that message. Therefore I suggest you have a word with anyone who knows your mobile number and see who sent you this message. For the record, we did not make a record of any phone numbers used in this campaign.^[8]

Reception

Critical reception

Season	Rotten Tomatoes	Metacritic
1	83% (36 reviews)[9]	77 (27 reviews)[10]
2	96% (23 reviews)[11]	85 (11 reviews)[12]
3	72% (25 reviews)[13]	78 (13 reviews)[14]
4	88% (34 reviews)[15]	77 (14 reviews)[16]
5	84% (25 reviews)[17]	76 (11 reviews)[18]
6	38% (26 reviews)[19]	62 (10 reviews)[20]
7	79% (24 reviews)[21]	81 (7 reviews)[22]
8	35% (46 reviews)[23]	71 (10 reviews)[24]

Although reception to individual seasons has varied, the overall response to Dexter has been positive. The first, second, fourth, and seventh seasons received critical acclaim, the third and fifth seasons received generally positive reviews, while the sixth and eighth seasons received mixed to negative reviews. While remarking on some of the show’s more formulaic elements (quirky detective, hero with dense workmates, convenient plot contrivances), Tad Friend of The New Yorker magazine remarked that when Dexter is struggling to connect with Rita or soliciting advice from his victims, “the show finds its voice.”^[25]

The review aggregator website Metacritic calculated a score of 77 from a possible 100 for season one, based on 27 reviews, making it the third-best reviewed show of the 2006 fall season. This score includes four 100 percent scores (from the New York Daily News, San Francisco Chronicle, Chicago Sun-Times and People Weekly magazine).^[10] Brian Lowry, who had written one of the three poor reviews Metacritic tallied for the show,^[26] recanted his negative review in a year-end column for the trade magazine Variety, after watching the full season.^[27] On Metacritic, season two has a score of 85 with all eleven reviews positive;^[12] season three scored 78 with 13 reviews;^[14] season four scored 77 with 14 reviews;^[16] season five scored 76 with eleven reviews;^[18] season six scored 62 with 10 reviews;^[20] season seven scored 81 with seven reviews;^[22] and season eight scored 71 with ten reviews.^[24]

On Rotten Tomatoes, season one has an 83 percent approval rating with a score of 8.0 out of 10, and the consensus: “Its dark but novel premise may be too grotesque for some, but Dexter is a compelling, elegantly crafted horror-drama.”;^[9] season two has a 96 percent approval rating with a score of 7.6 out of 10 and the consensus: “The Bay Harbor Butcher secures his nefarious spot among the great television anti-heroes in a taut second season that is both painfully suspenseful and darkly hilarious”;^[11] season three has a 72 percent approval rating with a score of 8.3 out of 10 and the consensus: “America’s most amiable serial killer has lost some of his dramatic edge, but this third outing continues Dexter‘s streak of delivering deliriously twisted entertainment”;^[13] season four has an 88 percent approval rating with a score of 8.4 out of 10 and the consensus: “The inherent comedy of Miami’s favorite psychopath contending with domestic bliss and the unspeakable horror of John Lithgow’s Trinity killer coalesce into one of Dexter‘s most sensational seasons”;^[15] season five has an 84 percent approval rating with a score of 7.5 out of 10 and the consensus: “Michael C. Hall’s remarkable performance invites viewers into Dexter’s heart of darkness in a sorrowful fifth season that explores whether a hollow man can become a real boy”;^[17] season six has a 38 percent approval rating with a score of 6.3 out of 10 and the consensus: “Heavy-handed symbolism, an unimpressive villain, and a redundant arc for America’s favorite serial killer all conspire to make Dexter‘s sixth season its worst yet”;^[19] season seven has an 79 percent approval rating with a score of 7.5 out of 10 and the consensus: “Season seven represents a return to form for Dexter, characterized by a riveting storyline and a willingness to take some risks”;^[21] and season eight has a 33 percent approval rating, a score of 5.5 out of 10, and the final consensus: “The darkly dreaming Dexter lays to rest once and for all in a bitterly disappointing final season that is so hesitant to punish its anti-hero for his misdeeds, it opts to punish its audience instead.”^[23]

Popular reception

The season-three finale, on December 14, 2008, was watched by 1.51 million people giving Showtime its highest ratings for any of its original series since 2004,^[28] when Nielsen started including original shows on premium channels in its ratings.^[29] The season-four finale aired on December 13, 2009, and was watched by 2.6 million viewers. It broke records for all of Showtime’s original series and was their highest-rated telecast in over a decade.^[30][31][32] The season-five finale was watched by a slightly smaller number of people—2.5 million. The show was declared the ninth-highest rated show for the first ten years of IMDb.com Pro (2002–2012).^[33] The seventh season as a whole was the highest rated season of Dexter, watched by 6.1 million total weekly viewers across all platforms.^[34] The season eight premiere was the most watched Dexter episode, with more than 3 million viewers total.^[35] The original broadcast of the series finale on September 22, 2013, drew 2.8 million viewers, the largest audience in Showtime’s history.^[36]

Awards and nominations

Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Dexter

Dexter was nominated for 24 Primetime Emmy Awards, including in the category of Outstanding Drama Series four times in a row, from 2008 to 2011, and Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (for Hall) five times in a row, from 2008 to 2012. It has also been nominated for ten Golden Globe Awards (winning two), seven Screen Actors Guild Awards and received a Peabody Award in 2007.^[37]

On December 14, 2006, Hall was nominated for a Golden Globe Award at the 64th Golden Globe Awards. In 2008, the show was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series for its second season (Showtime’s first-ever drama to be nominated for the award), and its star for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. It won neither, losing to Breaking Bad actor Bryan Cranston.^[38] In 2010, Hall and Lithgow, in their respective categories, each won a Golden Globe for their performances in season four.

Cultural impact

American broadcast

In December 2007, when CBS publicly announced that it was considering Dexter for broadcast reruns in the wake of the shortage of original programming ensuing from the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, the Parents Television Council (“PTC”) protested the decision.^[39][40] When the network began posting promotional videos of the rebroadcast on YouTube on January 29, 2008, PTC president Timothy F. Winter, in a formal press release, again called for CBS not to air the show on broadcast television, saying that it “should remain on a premium subscription cable network” because “the series compels viewers to empathize with a serial killer, to root for him to prevail, to hope he doesn’t get discovered.” Winters argued that the “consensus of medical opinion is that violent television content can cause long-term and irreparable harm to children.”^[41] Winter called on the public to demand that local affiliates pre-empt Dexter and warned advertisers that the PTC would take action against any affiliates that sponsored the show.^[42]

Following Winter’s press release, CBS added parental advisory notices to its broadcast promotions and ultimately rated Dexter TV-14 for broadcast.^[43] On February 17, 2008, the show premiered edited primarily for “language” and scenes containing sex or the dismemberment of live victims.^[44] The PTC later objected to CBS’ broadcasting of the final two episodes of season one in a two-hour block, and to the episodes’ starting times, which were as early as 8 pm in some time zones.^[45]

Association with real crimes

Several comparisons and connections to the TV show and its protagonist have been drawn during criminal prosecutions. In 2009, 17-year-old Andrew Conley said the show inspired him to strangle his ten-year-old brother.^[46] In an affidavit filed in Ohio County court, in Indiana, police said Conley confessed that he “watches a show called Dexter on Showtime, about a serial killer, and he stated, ‘I feel just like him.'”^[47]

In Spain, on July 25, 2009, a man and his girlfriend killed his brother and pregnant partner. The man owned the complete Dexter series DVD collection and the methods used to avoid leaving blood traces were inspired by the show.^[48]

On November 4, 2010, in Sweden, a 21-year-old woman known as Dexter-mördaren (“The Dexter killer”) or Dexter-kvinnan (“The Dexter woman”) killed her 49-year-old father by stabbing him in the heart.^[49] During questioning, the woman compared herself to Dexter Morgan, and a picture of the character would appear on her phone when her father called her. In July 2011, she was sentenced to seven years in prison.^[50]

In Norway, Shamrez Khan hired Håvard Nyfløt to kill Faiza Ashraf. Nyfløt claimed that Dexter inspired him, and he wanted to kill Khan in front of Faiza, similar to the television series, to “stop evil”.^[51]

Association was established between Mark Twitchell, of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, during his first-degree murder trial, and the character of Dexter Morgan. After weeks of testimony and gruesome evidence presented in court, Twitchell was found guilty of the planned and deliberate murder of 38-year-old Johnny Altinger on April 12, 2011.^[52]

British teenager Steven Miles, 17, was sentenced to 25 years in prison on October 2, 2014, for stabbing and dismembering his girlfriend Elizabeth Rose Thomas, 17, in Oxted, Surrey. Police discovered Thomas’ body on January 24, 2014, and determined the cause of death to be a stab wound to the back. Miles was arrested on suspicion of murder. Miles pled guilty to the crime on September 9. According to Surrey Police, Miles had dismembered Thomas’ body following her death, wrapping up limbs in plastic wrap, and had attempted to clean up the crime scene before he was found by a family member. Miles had been reported to be obsessed with the television series Dexter. Miles reportedly had an alter ego named Ed, whom Miles claims made him carry out the murder.^[53][54][55]

On January 11, 2022, in New Orleans, Louisiana, 34-year-old Benjamin Beale was arrested after police discovered a decapitated body inside a freezer in a painted bus.^[56] The body was confirmed, over a week later, to be that of Julia Dardar, a missing mother of two children.^[57] They even discovered a grim Dexter profile painting with guns and knives, as this murder was inspired by the “Ice Truck Killer” from the show’s first season.^[58]

Theme song and series music

The opening title theme for Dexter was written by Rolfe Kent and scored by American composer Daniel Licht. The series music for each episode was overseen by Gary Calamar of Go Music and coordinated by Alyson Vidoli.

• “Dexter Main Title” (Rolfe Kent) – 1:40
• “Tonight’s the Night” (Michael C. Hall, Daniel Licht) – 1:07
• “Conoci La Paz” (Beny Moré) – 3:03
• “Uruapan Breaks” (Kinky) – 2:21
• “Flores Para Ti” (Raw Artistic Soul featuring Rafael Cortez) – 5:16
• “Blood” (Michael C. Hall, Daniel Licht) – 0:59
• “Con Mi Guaguanco” (Ray Armando) – 7:12
• “Perfidia” (Mambo All-Stars) – 2:37
• “Sometimes I Wonder” (Michael C. Hall, Daniel Licht) – 0:29
• “Born Free” (Andy Williams) – 2:25
• “Dexter Main Title” (Kinky) – 1:41
• “Escalation” (Daniel Licht) – 2:09
• “Shipyard” (Daniel Licht) – 2:03
• “Deborah Loves Rudy/The House” (Daniel Licht) – 3:12
• “I Can’t Kill” (Daniel Licht) – 2:21
• “Voodoo Jailtime” (Daniel Licht) – 2:58
• “New Legs” (Daniel Licht) – 2:01
• “Photo Albums” (Daniel Licht) – 3:22
• “Courting the Night” (Daniel Licht) – 1:22
• “Hide Your Tears” (Daniel Licht) – 1:36
• “Wink” (Daniel Licht) – 2:08
• “Astor’s Birthday Party” (Daniel Licht) – 2:00
• “Epilogue/Bloodroom” (Daniel Licht) – 3:44
• “Blood Theme” (Daniel Licht) – 2:25
• “Die This Way” (Daniel Licht, Jon Licht) – 3:55
• “Fight or Flight” (Daniel Licht) – 1:41 (ITunes Bonus)
• “Nowhere to Hide” (Daniel Licht) – 1:43 (ITunes Bonus)
• “The Ice Truck Killer” (Daniel Licht) – 2:56 (ITunes Bonus)
• “The Fortune” (Daniel Licht) – 1:17 (ITunes Bonus)
• “Second Season Suite” (Daniel Licht) – 2:01 (ITunes Bonus)^{[59][circular reference]}

Other media

Dexter: Early Cuts

Dexter: Early Cuts is an animated web series that premiered on October 25, 2009.^[60] Hall reprises his role as the voice of Dexter.^[61]

KTV Media International Bullseye Art produced and animated the webisodes, working closely with Showtime for sound editing, Interspectacular for direction, and illustrators Kyle Baker, Ty Templeton, Andrés Vera Martínez, and Devin Lawson for creating distinctive illustrations. The webisodes are animated in 2.5D style, where flat two-dimensional illustrations are brought to life in three-dimensional space. The first season was created and written by Dexter producer/writer Lauren Gussis. She was nominated for a Webby for her writing in the first season.

The first web series precedes the narrative of the show and revolves around Dexter hunting down the three victims that he mentions in the sixth episode of season one, “Return to Sender“. Each victim’s story is split into four two-minute chapters.

A second season of the web series titled Dexter: Early Cuts: Dark Echo, one story in six chapters, premiered on October 25, 2010. It was written by Tim Schlattmann and illustrated by Bill Sienkiewicz and David Mack. The story begins immediately following Dexter’s adoptive father Harry’s death.^[62][63]

Season 3 centers around Dexter’s first encounter with a pair of killers. Each story is told in several two to three-minute chapters.

Album soundtrack

In August 2007, the album soundtrack entitled Dexter: Music from the Showtime Original Series was released featuring music from the television series.^[64] The album was produced by Showtime and distributed by Milan Records. The digital download version offers five additional bonus tracks from the show’s first two seasons.

Comic book

Marvel Comics released a Dexter limited series in July 2013. The comic books are written by creator Jeff Lindsay and drawn by Dalihbor Talajic.^[65][66] Another limited series, called Dexter: Down Under, was published in 2014.

Home media releases

DVD/Blu-ray releases
DVD Name	Release Date	Ep #	Additional Content
The Complete First Season	Region 1: August 21, 2007 Region 2: May 19, 2008 Region 4: February 14, 2008[67]	12	2 Episode Audio Commentaries by the CastThe Academy of Blood: A Killer Course!Witnessed in Blood: A True Murder InvestigationN Technology2 episodes of Showtime’s Brotherhood
The Complete Second Season	Region 1: August 19, 2008 Region 2: March 30, 2009 Region 4: August 21, 2008	12	2 episodes of Showtime’s Brotherhood, Season 2Via E-Bridge Technology2 episodes from The Tudors, Season 2 & Californication
The Complete Third Season	Region 1: August 18, 2009 Region 2: August 16, 2010 Region 4: August 20, 2009[68]	12	Cast Interviews with Michael C. Hall, Lauren Velez, C.S Lee, David Zayas, Jennifer Carpenter, Julie BenzVictims MatchInside the Writers RoomBringing Miami to LAMiami’s FinestPhoto GalleryFirst two Episodes of United States of Tara, Season 1
The Complete Fourth Season	Region 1: August 17, 2010 Region 2: November 29, 2010 Region 4: November 4, 2010[69]	12	Californication: Season 3: Episodes 1 & 2Lock ‘N Load: Season 1 – Episode 1The Tudors: Season 4 – Episodes 1 & 2Via E-Bridge TechnologyCast Interviews with Michael C. Hall, Clyde Phillips, David Zayas, John Lithgow, C.S Lee, Julie Benz, Lauren Velez, Jennifer Carpenter, James Remar
The Complete Fifth Season	Region 1: August 16, 2011 Region 2: September 5, 2011 Region 4: August 18, 2011	12	Californication: Season 4 – Episodes 1 & 2Interviews with: Michael C. Hall, Jennifer Carpenter, C.S. Lee, Lauren Vélez, Julia Stiles, James Remar, Desmond Harrington, Chip Johannessen, and David ZayasReflecting on Season 5: Julia StilesThe Borgias: Season 1 – Episodes 1 & 2Episodes: Season 1 – Episodes 1 & 2Homeland: Trailer
The Complete Sixth Season	Region 1: August 14, 2012 Region 2: June 18, 2012 Region 4: June 20, 2012	12	House of Lies Episodes 1 & 2Interviews with David Zayas, Michael C. Hall, Jennifer Carpenter, Lauren Vélez, CS Lee, Colin Hanks, and Desmond Harrington.
The Complete Seventh Season	Region 1: May 14, 2013 Region 2: June 3, 2013 Region 4: June 19, 2013	12	Ray Donovan Pilot EpisodeThe Borgias: Season 2 – Episodes 1 & 2Biographies
The Complete Eighth and Final Season	Region 1: November 14, 2013 Region 2: December 2, 2013 Region 4: November 27, 2013	12	From Cop To Killer, featuretteBehind the ScenesWith the CreatorsDissecting a SceneRay Donovan: Season 1 – Episodes 1 & 2
Blu-ray Name	Release Date	Ep #	Additional Content
The Complete First Season	Region A: January 6, 2009[70] Region B: June 18, 2012	12	2 Episode Audio Commentaries by the CastThe Academy of Blood: A Killer Course!Witnessed in Blood: A True Murder InvestigationPodcastFirst Episode of Dexter, Season 3 First two Episodes of United States of Tara, Season 1
The Complete Second Season	Region A: May 5, 2009[71] Region B: June 18, 2012	12	Tools of the TradePodcastsFeaturette: “Blood Fountains”Featurette: “Dark Defender”One episode of the upcoming Showtime series Nurse JackieOne episode of the new Showtime series United States of Tara
The Complete Third Season	Region A: August 18, 2009[72] Region B: June 18, 2012	12	First two Episodes of The Tudors, Season 3Dexter By Design – Book ExpertsCast Interviews with Michael C. Hall, Lauren Velez, C.S Lee, David Zayas, Jennifer Carpenter, Julie BenzFirst two Episodes of United States of Tara, Season 1
The Complete Fourth Season	Region A: August 17, 2010[73] Region B: November 4, 2010[74]	12	Californication: Season 3 – Episodes 1 & 2The Tudors: Season 4 – Episodes 1 & 22009 Comic Con Panel (Best Buy Exclusive)
The Complete Fifth Season	Region A: August 16, 2011 Region B: August 18, 2011	12	The Borgias: Season 1 – Episodes 1 & 2Episodes: Season 1 – Episodes 1 & 2Interviews with: Michael C. Hall, Jennifer Carpenter, C.S. Lee, Lauren Vélez, Julia Stiles, James Remar, Desmond Harrington, Chip Johannessen, and David ZayasReflecting on Season 5: Julia Stiles
The Complete Sixth Season	Region A: August 15, 2012 Region B: June 18, 2012	12	TBA
The Complete Seventh Season	Region A: May 14, 2013 Region B: June 3, 2013	12	TBA
The Complete Eighth and Final Season	Region A: November 12, 2013 Region B: November 27, 2013	12	TBA

Games

On September 13, 2009, Icarus Studios released a video game based on the events of season one, for the iPhone platform, via the iTunes app store. The game was released for the iPad on October 15, 2010, and for PCs on February 15, 2011. The cast and crew of Dexter were very supportive, with some of the cast providing full voice work for the game, including Hall. The game has received many positive reviews, including an 8/10 from IGN.^{[citation needed]} No additional content for the game has been released or announced as planned; plans to release the game on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 seem to have been canceled, as no recent information regarding the expansion of the game onto these platforms has been given and both consoles have been discontinued.

In July 2010, Showtime launched Dexter Game On during Comic-Con. The promotion relied on community involvement, part of which required participants to use the SCVNGR applications available for the Android, iPad, iPhone, and iPod Touch platforms to complete treks around the five cities where the game was available. The final trek led to a kill room, where the Infinity Killer had recently claimed a victim. A link was found in the room to a (fake) company called Sleep Superbly, which began an extensive Showtime-maintained alternate reality game that continued until Dexter‘s season-five premiere.^[75] The alternate reality game involves players working cooperatively to help catch the Infinity Killer and identify his victims; several other characters help. During the game, players communicate with the Infinity Killer, among many others. The game spans Craigslist, Facebook, Twitter, and countless unique sites created for the game. Players can even call phone numbers. The characters and companies are controlled by real people, adding an extra layer of realism and the ability for intelligent conversation. To maintain a realistic feeling in the game, Showtime does not put its name or advertisements on most sites or pages created for the game.^{[citation needed]}

In September 2010, the Toronto-based company, GDC-GameDevCo Ltd., released a Dexter board game.^[76]

On August 13, 2015, the hidden object mobile game Dexter: Hidden Darkness^[77] was released for all iOS devices, with the announcement that Android support would be available soon. Players, acting as Dexter Morgan, solve crimes and hunt down killers to “feed” the dark passenger.

Merchandise

In February 2010, EMCE Toys announced plans to release action figures based on the series.^[78]

In March 2010, Dark Horse Comics released a seven-inch bust of Dexter Morgan, as part of its Last Toys on the Left series.^[79] In April 2010, it released a bobblehead doll based on the show character, the Trinity Killer.^[80]

A variety of merchandise items is available from Showtime including an apron, bin bags, blood slide beverage coasters and key rings, drinking glasses, mugs, pens made to look like syringes of blood, posters, and T-shirts.^[81]

In June 2021 Flashback announced a highly detailed ¹⁄₆th scale figure of Dexter Morgan.

Prop sales

In January 2014, in partnership with Hollywood Props, Dexter Corner created an auction site and sold hundreds of original props used in the series; part of the auction’s proceeds were donated to the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society.^[82][83][84] Showtime has also offered a limited selection of props for sale.^[85]

Franchise

Series	Seasons	Episodes		Originally released			Status
				First released	Last released	Network
Dexter	8	96		October 1, 2006	September 22, 2013	Showtime	Concluded
Dexter: New Blood	1	10		November 7, 2021	January 9, 2022
Dexter: Original Sin	1	10		December 13, 2024	February 14, 2025	Paramount+	Renewed
Dexter: Resurrection	1	5		July 11, 2025	September 5, 2025[86]	Paramount+ with Showtime	Airing
Upcoming
Untitled Trinity Killer series	TBA	TBA		2026	TBA	TBA	In development

Dexter: New Blood (2021–22)

Main article: Dexter: New Blood

In October 2020, Showtime announced that Dexter would return with a 10-episode limited series, starring Michael C. Hall in his original role, with Clyde Phillips returning as showrunner.^[87] On November 17, 2020, it was announced Marcos Siega is set to direct six episodes of the limited series as well as executive produce alongside Hall, John Goldwyn, Sara Colleton, Bill Carraro, and Scott Reynolds.^[88] Production began in February 2021, with a fall 2021 premiere date.^[89] In January 2021, Clancy Brown was cast as Kurt Caldwell, Dexter’s main antagonist and David Magidoff was cast as Teddy.^[90][91] In February 2021, Jamie Chung and Oscar Wahlberg were cast in recurring roles.^[92][93] In June 2021, it was announced that John Lithgow would reprise his role as Arthur Mitchell.^[94] In July 2021, it was revealed that Jennifer Carpenter would return as well, with both Lithgow and Carpenter appearing in their characters during flashback scenes.^[95] It premiered on November 7, 2021, on Showtime.^[96]

Dexter: Original Sin (2024–present)

Main article: Dexter: Original Sin

A prequel series titled Dexter: Original Sin was also developed with a straight-to-series order. It is set in 1991, fifteen years before the events of the original show. Depicting the earlier years of Dexter’s life through the frame story of Dexter thinking back on his youth post-New Blood, the show follows his years after college graduation, and his first introduction to various characters from the original series. Members of his family feature as main characters.^[97][98]

The series stars Patrick Gibson as Dexter, Molly Brown as Debra and Christian Slater as Harry Morgan.^{[99][100][101]} Other cast includes Patrick Dempsey as Aaron Spencer, James Martinez as Angel Batista, Christina Milian as Maria LaGuerta, Alex Shimizu as Vince Masuka, Reno Wilson as Bobby Watt and Sarah Michelle Gellar as Tanya Martin.^[102] The series premiered on December 13, 2024, on Showtime.^[103] The first season consisted of ten episodes, released weekly and ending on February 14, 2025. A second season was announced on April 1, 2025.^[104]

Dexter: Resurrection (2025–present)

Main article: Dexter: Resurrection

A sequel series to Dexter: New Blood titled Dexter: Resurrection was announced, with Michael C. Hall reprising his role as Dexter, at San Diego Comic-Con on July 26, 2024.^[105] In January 2025, David Zayas, James Remar, and Jack Alcott were confirmed as series regulars, reprising their roles as Detective Angel Batista, Harry Morgan, and Harrison Morgan, respectively.^[106] Other cast confirmed for the series includes Uma Thurman, Peter Dinklage, Neil Patrick Harris, Krysten Ritter,^[107] Eric Stonestreet, Ntare Guma Mbaho Mwine, Dominic Fumusa, Kadia Saraf, Emilia Suárez,^[108] David Dastmalchian,^[109] and Steve Schirripa.^[110] John Lithgow is set to reprise his role as the Trinity Killer in a cameo. “They’re rebooting the entire Michael C. Hall version of ‘Dexter.’ And it turns out he didn’t die after all. I come back sort of as a phantom, as he gradually comes to life on a hospital bed” Lithgow said.^[111] The series is slated to premiere in 2025.^[112]

Future

Additional spin-off series, depicting the origins of various other characters from the original show including the Trinity Killer are also in development.^[113] The new Dexter franchise is being overseen by Clyde Phillips, the showrunner of Dexter. The multiple television shows will be developed through Showtime’s merger with Paramount+.^[97][98]

Take a break – take a mental health day from work. You never know what will happen.

Most of us have been through it at one time or another. Not fun. But at least it makes you feel like you are alive and feeling something. This is an original song, released on the Horse Latitudes album, redone for 2025. In the naming of this time, I chose to include an important physics concept that it may be possible for time to travel in more than one direction. I’ve included some text below about that. While it is not strictly related to the song, it is a fun idea to read about.

Lyrics

Arrow of Time hit me right through the heart
When you said you were done it tore my body apart
The heavens have opened and pain fills this guy
and you know I see your face every time I close my eyes.

Never ever thought I would lose your love
Every where I look it’s shades of gray
I’d do anything to turn around
The arrow of time my way

Day after day I walk through the haze
All my friends keep on saying It’s only a phase
A phase that I’m going through
But it’s a Calvary climb
I’m just a hologram
Hanging round and killing time

Never ever thought I would lose your love
Every where I look it’s shades of gray
I’d do anything to turn around
The arrow of time my way

Arrow of time

This article is an overview of the subject. For a more technical discussion and for information related to current research, see Entropy (arrow of time).

The arrow of time, also called time’s arrow, is the concept positing the “one-way direction” or “asymmetry” of time. It was developed in 1927 by the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington, and is an unsolved general physics question. This direction, according to Eddington, could be determined by studying the organization of atoms, molecules, and bodies, and might be drawn upon a four-dimensional relativistic map of the world (“a solid block of paper”).^[1]

The arrow of time paradox was originally recognized in the 1800s for gases (and other substances) as a discrepancy between microscopic and macroscopic description of thermodynamics / statistical physics: at the microscopic level physical processes are believed to be either entirely or mostly time-symmetric: if the direction of time were to reverse, the theoretical statements that describe them would remain true. Yet at the macroscopic level it often appears that this is not the case: there is an obvious direction (or flow) of time.

Overview

The symmetry of time (T-symmetry) can be understood simply as the following: if time were perfectly symmetrical, a video of real events would seem realistic whether played forwards or backwards.^[2] Gravity, for example, is a time-reversible force. A ball that is tossed up, slows to a stop, and falls is a case where recordings would look equally realistic forwards and backwards. The system is T-symmetrical. However, the process of the ball bouncing and eventually coming to a stop is not time-reversible. While going forward, kinetic energy is dissipated and entropy is increased. Entropy may be one of the few processes that is not time-reversible. According to the statistical notion of increasing entropy, the “arrow” of time is identified with a decrease of free energy.^[3]

In his book The Big Picture, physicist Sean M. Carroll compares the asymmetry of time to the asymmetry of space: While physical laws are in general isotropic, near Earth there is an obvious distinction between “up” and “down”, due to proximity to this huge body, which breaks the symmetry of space. Similarly, physical laws are in general symmetric to the flipping of time direction, but near the Big Bang (i.e., in the first many trillions of years following it), there is an obvious distinction between “forward” and “backward” in time, due to relative proximity to this special event, which breaks the symmetry of time. Under this view, all the arrows of time are a result of our relative proximity in time to the Big Bang and the special circumstances that existed then. (Strictly speaking, the weak interactions are asymmetric to both spatial reflection and to flipping of the time direction. However, they do obey a more complicated symmetry that includes both.)^{[citation needed]}

Conception by Eddington

In the 1928 book The Nature of the Physical World, which helped to popularize the concept, Eddington stated:

Let us draw an arrow arbitrarily. If as we follow the arrow we find more and more of the random element in the state of the world, then the arrow is pointing towards the future; if the random element decreases the arrow points towards the past. That is the only distinction known to physics. This follows at once if our fundamental contention is admitted that the introduction of randomness is the only thing which cannot be undone. I shall use the phrase ‘time’s arrow’ to express this one-way property of time which has no analogue in space.

Eddington then gives three points to note about this arrow:

1. It is vividly recognized by consciousness.
2. It is equally insisted on by our reasoning faculty, which tells us that a reversal of the arrow would render the external world nonsensical.
3. It makes no appearance in physical science except in the study of organization of a number of individuals. (In other words, it is only observed in entropy, a statistical mechanics phenomenon arising from a system.)

Arrows

Psychological/perceptual arrow of time

Main article: Time perception

A related mental arrow arises because one has the sense that one’s perception is a continuous movement from the known past to the unknown future. This phenomenon has two aspects: memory (we remember the past but not the future) and volition (we feel we can influence the future but not the past). The two aspects are a consequence of the causal arrow of time: past events (but not future events) are the cause of our present memories, as more and more correlations are formed between the outer world and our brain (see correlations and the arrow of time); and our present volitions and actions are causes of future events. This is because the increase of entropy is thought to be related to increase of both correlations between a system and its surroundings^[4] and of the overall complexity, under an appropriate definition;^[5] thus all increase together with time.

Past and future are also psychologically associated with additional notions. English, along with other languages, tends to associate the past with “behind” and the future with “ahead”, with expressions such as “to look forward to welcoming you”, “to look back to the good old times”, or “to be years ahead”. However, this association of “behind ⇔ past” and “ahead ⇔ future” is culturally determined.^[6] For example, the Aymara language associates “ahead ⇔ past” and “behind ⇔ future” both in terms of terminology and gestures, corresponding to the past being observed and the future being unobserved.^[7][8] Similarly, the Chinese term for “the day after tomorrow” 後天 (“hòutiān”) literally means “after (or behind) day”, whereas “the day before yesterday” 前天 (“qiántiān”) is literally “preceding (or in front) day”, and Chinese speakers spontaneously gesture in front for the past and behind for the future, although there are conflicting findings on whether they perceive the ego to be in front of or behind the past.^[9][10] There are no languages that place the past and future on a left–right axis (e.g., there is no expression in English such as *the meeting was moved to the left), although at least English speakers associate the past with the left and the future with the right, which seems to have its origin in the left-to-right writing system.^[6]

The words “yesterday” and “tomorrow” both translate to the same word in Hindi: कल (“kal”),^[11] meaning “[one] day remote from today.”^[12] The ambiguity is resolved by verb tense. परसों (“parson”) is used for both “day before yesterday” and “day after tomorrow”, or “two days from today”.^[13]

तरसों (“tarson”) is used for “three days from today”^[14] and नरसों (“narson”) is used for “four days from today”.

The other side of the psychological passage of time is in the realm of volition and action. We plan and often execute actions intended to affect the course of events in the future. From the Rubaiyat:

The Moving Finger writes; and, having writ,
  Moves on: nor all thy Piety nor Wit.
Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line,
  Nor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it.

— Omar Khayyam (translation by Edward Fitzgerald).

In June 2022, researchers reported^[15] in Physical Review Letters finding that salamanders were demonstrating counter-intuitive responses to the arrow of time in how their eyes perceived different stimuli.^{[clarification needed]}

Thermodynamic arrow of time

Main article: Entropy as an arrow of time

The arrow of time is the “one-way direction” or “asymmetry” of time. The thermodynamic arrow of time is provided by the second law of thermodynamics, which says that in an isolated system, entropy tends to increase with time. Entropy can be thought of as a measure of microscopic disorder; thus the second law implies that time is asymmetrical with respect to the amount of order in an isolated system: as a system advances through time, it becomes more statistically disordered. This asymmetry can be used empirically to distinguish between future and past, though measuring entropy does not accurately measure time. Also, in an open system, entropy can decrease with time. An interesting thought experiment would be to ask: “if entropy was increased in an open system, would the arrow of time flip in polarity and point towards the past.” [citation required]

British physicist Sir Alfred Brian Pippard wrote: “There is thus no justification for the view, often glibly repeated, that the Second Law of Thermodynamics is only statistically true, in the sense that microscopic violations repeatedly occur, but never violations of any serious magnitude. On the contrary, no evidence has ever been presented that the Second Law breaks down under any circumstances.”^[16] However, there are a number of paradoxes^[which?] regarding violation of the second law of thermodynamics, one of them due to the Poincaré recurrence theorem.

This arrow of time seems to be related to all other arrows of time and arguably underlies some of them, with the exception of the weak arrow of time.^{[clarification needed]}

Harold Blum‘s 1951 book Time’s Arrow and Evolution^[17] discusses “the relationship between time’s arrow (the second law of thermodynamics) and organic evolution.” This influential text explores “irreversibility and direction in evolution and order, negentropy, and evolution.”^[18] Blum argues that evolution followed specific patterns predetermined by the inorganic nature of the earth and its thermodynamic processes.^[19]

Cosmological arrow of time

See also: Entropy, Entropy as an arrow of time, and Past hypothesis

The cosmological arrow of time points in the direction of the universe’s expansion. It may be linked to the thermodynamic arrow, with the universe heading towards a heat death (Big Chill) as the amount of Thermodynamic free energy becomes negligible. Alternatively, it may be an artifact of our place in the universe’s evolution (see the Anthropic bias), with this arrow reversing as gravity pulls everything back into a Big Crunch.

If this arrow of time is related to the other arrows of time, then the future is by definition the direction towards which the universe becomes bigger. Thus, the universe expands—rather than shrinks—by definition.

The thermodynamic arrow of time and the second law of thermodynamics are thought to be a consequence of the initial conditions in the early universe.^[20] Therefore, they ultimately result from the cosmological set-up.

Radiative arrow of time

Waves, from radio waves to sound waves to those on a pond from throwing a stone, expand outward from their source, even though the wave equations accommodate solutions of convergent waves as well as radiative ones. This arrow has been reversed in carefully worked experiments that created convergent waves,^[21] so this arrow probably follows from the thermodynamic arrow in that meeting the conditions to produce a convergent wave requires more order than the conditions for a radiative wave. Put differently, the probability for initial conditions that produce a convergent wave is much lower than the probability for initial conditions that produce a radiative wave. In fact, normally a radiative wave increases entropy, while a convergent wave decreases it,^{[citation needed]} making the latter contradictory to the second law of thermodynamics in usual circumstances.

Causal arrow of time

A cause precedes its effect: the causal event occurs before the event it causes or affects. Birth, for example, follows a successful conception and not vice versa. Thus causality is intimately bound up with time’s arrow.

An epistemological problem with using causality as an arrow of time is that, as David Hume maintained, the causal relation per se cannot be perceived; one only perceives sequences of events. Furthermore, it is surprisingly difficult to provide a clear explanation of what the terms cause and effect really mean, or to define the events to which they refer. However, it does seem evident that dropping a cup of water is a cause while the cup subsequently shattering and spilling the water is the effect.

Physically speaking, correlations between a system and its surrounding are thought to increase with entropy, and have been shown to be equivalent to it in a simplified case of a finite system interacting with the environment.^[4] The assumption of low initial entropy is indeed equivalent to assuming no initial correlations in the system; thus correlations can only be created as we move forward in time, not backwards. Controlling the future, or causing something to happen, creates correlations between the doer and the effect,^[22] and therefore the relation between cause and effect is a result of the thermodynamic arrow of time, a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics.^[23] Indeed, in the above example of the cup dropping, the initial conditions have high order and low entropy, while the final state has high correlations between relatively distant parts of the system – the shattered pieces of the cup, as well as the spilled water, and the object that caused the cup to drop.

Quantum arrow of time

Quantum evolution is governed by equations of motions that are time-symmetric (such as the Schrödinger equation in the non-relativistic approximation), and by wave function collapse, which is a time-irreversible process, and is only physically real in explicit collapse interpretations of quantum theory, such as the Diósi–Penrose model, the Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber theory, or the Transactional interpretation, which uses the direct-action or “absorber” theory of fields.

The conventional approach is to assume that quantum decoherence explains irreversibility and the second law of thermodynamics, thus claiming to derive the quantum arrow of time from the thermodynamic arrow of time; however this is a matter of some debate, since the underlying dynamics is assumed to be unitary and thus reversible. ^[24] A conventional account of decoherence is to say that following any particle scattering or interaction between two larger systems, the relative phases of the two systems are at first orderly related, but subsequent interactions (with additional particles or systems) make them less so, so that the two systems become decoherent. Thus decoherence is a form of increase in microscopic disorder – in short, decoherence increases entropy. Two decoherent systems can no longer interact via quantum superposition, unless they become coherent again, which is normally impossible, by the second law of thermodynamics.^[25] In the language of relational quantum mechanics, the observer becomes entangled with the measured state, where this entanglement increases entropy. As stated by Seth Lloyd, “the arrow of time is an arrow of increasing correlations”.^[26][27]

However, under special circumstances, one can prepare initial conditions that will cause a decrease in decoherence and in entropy. This has been shown experimentally in 2019, when a team of Russian scientists reported the reversal of the quantum arrow of time on an IBM quantum computer, in an experiment supporting the understanding of the quantum arrow of time as emerging from the thermodynamic one.^[28] By observing the state of the quantum computer made of two and later three superconducting qubits, they found that in 85% of the cases, the two-qubit computer returned to the initial state.^[29] The state’s reversal was made by a special program, similarly to the random microwave background fluctuation in the case of the electron.^[29] However, according to the estimations, throughout the age of the universe (13.7 billion years) such a reversal of the electron’s state would only happen once, for 0.06 nanoseconds.^[29] The scientists’ experiment led to the possibility of a quantum algorithm that reverses a given quantum state through complex conjugation of the state.^[28]

Note that quantum decoherence merely allows the appearance of quantum wave collapse (based on the vanishing of diagonal elements of the density matrix); it is a matter of dispute whether the collapse itself actually takes place or is redundant and apparent only. While the theory of quantum decoherence is widely accepted and has been supported experimentally at the level of the applicable density matrix, the conventional theory’s inability to predict actual measurement outcomes via non-unitary collapse remains. That is, the density matrix obtained from standard unitary-only decoherence (without actual collapse) is an improper mixture that cannot be interpreted as reflecting a determinate measurement outcome. Thus the arrow of time question continues to be addressed by way of explicit collapse approaches.^[30]

Particle physics (weak) arrow of time

Main article: CP violation

Certain subatomic interactions involving the weak nuclear force violate the conservation of both parity and charge conjugation, but only very rarely. An example is the kaon decay.^[31] According to the CPT theorem, this means they should also be time-irreversible, and so establish an arrow of time. Such processes should be responsible for matter creation in the early universe.

That the combination of parity and charge conjugation is broken so rarely means that this arrow only “barely” points in one direction, setting it apart from the other arrows whose direction is much more obvious. This arrow had not been linked to any large-scale temporal behaviour until the work of Joan Vaccaro, who showed that T violation could be responsible for conservation laws and dynamics.^[32]

An update of my cover of the Paul Simon song.

“American Tune” is a song by the American singer-songwriter Paul Simon. It was the third single from his third studio album, There Goes Rhymin’ Simon (1973), released on Columbia Records. The song, a meditation on the American experience, is based on the melody of the hymn “O Sacred Head, Now Wounded” and bears a striking resemblance to J. S. Bach’s “Erkenne mich, mein Hüter“. The song reached number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100.^[2]

Lyrics

In an interview with Tom Moon in 2011, Paul Simon was asked about political references in his songs, and he said: “I don’t write overtly political songs, although ‘American Tune’ comes pretty close, as it was written just after Nixon was elected.”^[3]

Reception

Billboard described it as a “discourse on inner security while being far from home.”^[4] Cash Box called it a “gorgeous, haunting, highly lyrical track” and said that the “soft vocal performance is heightened by sweet string section.”^[5] Record World said that it “should touch the hearts and ears of many Americans” with a “beautiful melody wrapped around meaningful lyrics.”^[6]

It is ranked number 262 on Rolling Stone’s list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.^[7]

Years after the song’s release, the Los Angeles Times wrote “It does not ring with the loud anger that runs through our time. It is mournful, as if unspooling in the candlelight of a day’s end,” and praised the song for its tender, timeless nature, noting it as a “visceral [reminder] of our history.”^[8]

Music

The tune is based on the melody of the hymn “O Sacred Head, Now Wounded” (German: “O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden,” text by Paul Gerhardt). The common name for this hymn tune is “Passion Chorale.” The well-known hymn is itself a reworking of an earlier secular song, “Mein G’müt ist mir verwirret,” composed by Hans Leo Hassler.^[9]

Personnel

• Paul Simon – vocals, acoustic guitar
• Bob James – keyboards
• Bob Cranshaw – bass guitar
• Grady Tate – drums
• Del Newman – string arrangement

Live performances

“American Tune” became a concert favorite, both for Simon and in reunion concerts with Simon’s former singing partner, Art Garfunkel. The song appears on several of Simon’s solo live albums and on Simon & Garfunkel‘s post-breakup live albums, most famously The Concert in Central Park. A live version with a string quartet appeared on Simon’s 1977 album Greatest Hits, Etc. Simon performed the song live on November 18, 2008, during the airing of The Colbert Report,^[10] and on September 11, 2015, to close out the last show of the first week of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert.^[11] In his surprise appearance at the 2022 Newport Folk Festival, Simon introduced Rhiannon Giddens to sing the song, with lyrics adjusted to include the lines, “We didn’t come here on the Mayflower / We came on a ship in a blood red moon”. Giddens backed the song with banjo, while Simon accompanied on guitar. ^[12]

Cover versions

The song has been covered by many artists, notably Rhiannon Giddens, Willie Nelson, Eva Cassidy, Ann Wilson, Shawn Colvin, Allen Toussaint, Gretchen Peters, Indigo Girls, Starland Vocal Band, Dave Matthews, Trey Anastasio, John Boutté, Keane, Glen Phillips, Jerry Douglas, Kurt Elling, Curtis Stigers, Darrell Scott, Storyhill, and Stacey Kent.^[13] Mandy Patinkin covered the song in Yiddish on his 1998 album Mamaloshen.

In 2017, Elvis Costello released a non-album single version under the pseudonym “The Imposter”. In 2020, Dave Matthews performed “American Tune” for Jimmy Kimmel Live! during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2023, Rufus Wainwright performed “American Tune” on his tour with the Amsterdam Sinfonietta through the Netherlands.^[14]

Simon’s own unfinished demo recording, with incomplete lyrics, was released as a bonus track on the 2004 CD reissue of There Goes Rhymin’ Simon.

Use and references in popular culture

The song has been featured in the television series The Wonder Years,^[15] and used as the opening and closing song to Ken Burns’ documentary The Statue of Liberty.^[16] A cover version by Crooked Still was used for the closing credits of the final episode of the 2022 series The English.^[17]

Simon performed the song at the pre-inaugural concert for Jimmy Carter, held at the Kennedy Center in Washington on January 19, 1977, the evening before Carter’s swearing-in as president.^[18]

In late October 2008, the progressive advocacy group Progressive Future produced a 60-second television ad featuring “American Tune” in support of Senator Barack Obama‘s presidential campaign. The “what’s gone wrong” line underscored a photo of President George W. Bush and Obama’s opponent John McCain standing close together.^[19]

Charts

Chart (1973–74)	Peak position
Canada (RPM)[20]	35
Canada Pop Music Playlist (RPM)[21]	5
US Easy Listening (Billboard)[22]	8
US Billboard Hot 100[23]	35

My Allman Bros. cover, updated for 2025

“Blue Sky” is a song by the American rock band The Allman Brothers Band from their third studio album, Eat a Peach (1972), released on Capricorn Records. The song was written and sung by guitarist Dickey Betts, who penned it about his girlfriend (and later wife), Sandy “Bluesky” Wabegijig. The track is also notable as one of guitarist Duane Allman‘s final recorded performances with the group. The band’s two guitarists, Duane Allman and Dickey Betts, alternate playing the song’s lead: Allman’s solo beginning 1:07 in, Betts joining in a shared melody line at 2:28, followed by Betts’s solo at 2:37. The song is notably more country-inspired than many songs in the band’s catalogue.

Background

His debut as a vocalist for the band, Dickey Betts composed “Blue Sky” about his Indigenous Canadian girlfriend, Sandy “Bluesky” Wabegijig, whom he would later marry. The lyrics leave out any references to gender to make it nonspecific: “Once I got into the song I realized how nice it would be to keep the vernaculars—he and she—out and make it like you’re thinking of the spirit, like I was giving thanks for a beautiful day. I think that made it broader and more relatable to anyone and everyone,” he later said.^[3] Betts initially wanted the band’s lead vocalist, Gregg Allman, to sing the song, but guitarist Duane Allman encouraged him to sing it himself: “Man, this is your song and it sounds like you and you need to sing it.”^[3] An embryonic version of the song can be found on the fan bootleg, The Gatlinburg Tapes, a recording of the band jamming in April 1971 in Gatlinburg, Tennessee.^[4]

The song was one of Duane Allman’s last recorded performances with the band. “As I mixed songs like “Blue Sky,” I knew, of course, that I was listening to the last things that Duane ever played and there was just such a mix of beauty and sadness, knowing there’s not going to be any more from him,” said Johnny Sandlin.^[5]

Live versions including Duane Allman

While Duane Allman died before Eat a Peach’s release, the band played the song live several times before and after the album’s studio version was recorded. Only one of these performances, recorded live during a September 19, 1971, concert at S.U.N.Y. Stonybrook, has been released by the band; several bootleg recordings from other shows circulate.

Cover versions

“Blue Sky” has been covered several times in the past including by Joan Baez on her 1975 album Diamonds & Rust, also released as a single. In 2018 singer and guitarist Frank Hannon released a cover of “Blue Sky” featuring Dickey Betts‘ son Duane Betts on guitar. Frank Hannon is the son-in-law of Dickey Betts. The cover album titled “From one place…to Another! Vol.1” reached #27 on Billboards Folk / Americana charts.

From the ‘A Second Passed’ album, updated for 2025. Shine when others tell you taht the world we know is a ball of confusion.

My version of the great Squeeze hit from the 80s. Interesting that the lyrics state ‘another nail for my heart‘ but the title is slightly different. AI has come a long way with its image generation, but based on what was created for this song, it still has a ways to go. But the image is still pretty funny, so I will use it anyway.

“Another Nail in My Heart” is a 1980 song by new wave band Squeeze. Written by Chris Difford and Glenn Tilbrook, it was released on the album Argybargy. Notable for Tilbrook’s guitar solo right after the first verse, the song features marimba in its opening at the suggestion of newly acquired bassist John Bentley. Difford has expressed disappointment with his lyrics on the song, though he praised Tilbrook’s solo.

The song has since received positive critical reviews, and charted in the United Kingdom and Canada. Squeeze has since included the song in their concert setlists and compilation albums.

Background

“Another Nail in My Heart,” according to Squeeze singer and guitarist Glenn Tilbrook, began as “another slow number” where he “had the melody line to start with and the band fleshed it out.”^[5] Among these contributions was bassist John Bentley‘s suggestion to dub a marimba onto the song’s intro. Bentley recalled, “I turned to Glenn and I said, ‘That riff would sound really good if you overdubbed a marimba.’ … He just kinda looked at me and didn’t say anything, …so I didn’t think any more about it. The next day, we came into the studio and I walked in and there was a classical set of marimbas!”^[6] Tilbrook claimed the song would have been “very ordinary” without the band’s assistance.^[5]

The song is notable for its guitar solo, which is performed after the first verse. Tilbrook explained, “It took a whole afternoon to get the solo right and John Wood was very patient with me. I had a definite idea of how I wanted it to sound and he could see what I was after, although there was a lot of groping around in the dark.”^[5] Difford praised Tilbrook’s solo as “stunning” and “really thought through.” Tilbrook also performs the Moog synthesizer on the song. Keyboardist Jools Holland‘s only contribution was the final piano arpeggio; in the official music video, he can be seen hauling his piano cross town while the band is already going, only to arrive at the studio just in time to make his “performance”.^[5]

Chris Difford was dismissive of his contribution to the song, stating, “I don’t think the lyric is much cop.”^[5] He elaborated in his autobiography, “It was written quickly and has its roots in the constant flow of verses and choruses I was forced to produce, rather than in me unearthing any deep emotional thoughts.”^[7]

Music and lyrics

“Another Nail in My Heart” is two minutes and fifty-five seconds long. It was written by Squeeze members Chris Difford and Glenn Tilbrook, and it was produced by John Wood and Squeeze.^[8] AllMusic‘s Stephen Thomas Erlewine called it a “nervy breakup tune.”^[9] In his review of the song, Stewart Mason wrote, “The topic, as usual, is a cocktail of lost love and heavy drinking, culminating in the memorable chorus ‘And here in the bar, the piano man’s found another nail for my heart.'”^[10]

Interestingly, the title “Another Nail in My Heart” is never directly used in the song’s lyrics. Every time the main chorus appears, the word “in” is supplemented with the word “for.”^[11]

Release

The song was released as a single in January 1980 with the b-side “Pretty Thing.” Later that year, it was released as the second track on Squeeze’s full-length album, Argybargy. It has also been included on several of Squeeze’s compilation albums, such as Singles – 45’s and Under, Greatest Hits, and The Big Squeeze – The Very Best of Squeeze.^[12] The band re-recorded the song for the album Spot the Difference.^[13]

A music video for the song was also produced, featuring the band miming the song. Because Jools Holland does not perform on the song until its final piano flourish, Holland is featured in the video pushing a piano towards the building where the rest of the band is performing. At the end of the video, he reaches the building and plays the final arpeggio.

Reception

Critical reception

“Another Nail in My Heart” received positive reviews from music critics. Cash Box called it a “upbeat, fresh pop/rock,” with “witty lyrics, excellent pop ensemble playing (with a nod to the Beatles) and great vocals.”^[14] Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called the track a “pop classic of the new wave era”, while the same site’s Stewart Mason wrote that “it’s one of Squeeze’s finest singles, marrying one of Glenn Tilbrook’s most memorably McCartneyesque melodies to a typically wry and clever Chris Difford lyric.”^[10]

Robert Palmer of The New York Times described the song as an “ingenious pop-rock confection”^[1][2] John M. Borack wrote that it “made great use of Difford and Tilbrook’s signature high register / low register harmonies.”^[15] and fellow New York Times writer Jon Pareles cited it as one of Squeeze’s “catchiest” songs.^[16] The Rough Guide to Rock called the song a “piece of pop mastery”.^[17]

Chart performance

The song entered the UK Singles Chart at #65 on 1 March 1980. It stayed on the chart for nine weeks, peaking at number 17 on 29 March.^[18] In Canada, it was on the singles chart for 11 weeks and peaked at #56 on 28 June.^[19][20] In the United States, it was a hit on college radio but did not appear on the charts.^[1]

Live performances

Squeeze performed the song at their concerts throughout the 1980s and 1990s.^[16][21][22] Glenn Tilbrook played the song at solo concerts in 2009 and 2011.^[23][24]

Come to www.baselines.com to order your next audio production project.

Baselines Designs: Specializing in Professional Music Production and Creation

Baselines Designs, operating from the domain baselines.com, is a specialized entity deeply rooted in the music industry, offering comprehensive professional music creation and production services. Unlike companies that might dabble in various design fields, Baselines Designs is singularly focused on the artistry and technical intricacies of bringing musical ideas to life, from initial concept to polished, release-ready tracks. Their offerings cater to musicians, artists, and content creators who require expert assistance in various stages of their music projects.

The core of Baselines Designs’ business lies in its suite of production, mixing, and mastering services. These services are meticulously structured to provide artists with the professional-grade audio quality and creative input necessary to compete in today’s demanding music landscape.

Comprehensive Music Production Services

Baselines Designs offers a Full Production service, which is their most comprehensive package, designed for artists seeking end-to-end support for a single song. This service encompasses a holistic approach to song development, ensuring that every element of the track is refined and optimized. The key components of their Full Production service include:

• Arrangement Suggestions: This involves expert advice and implementation on how various musical elements (instrumentation, vocals, harmonies, rhythms) are structured throughout the song. This creative input helps to build dynamic and engaging compositions, ensuring the song flows effectively and maintains listener interest.
• New Part Suggestions: Beyond existing ideas, the team at Baselines Designs can propose and even create new musical parts ? whether it?s a catchy melody, a compelling bassline, or a complementary harmony ? to enhance the song’s texture and appeal. This service acts as a collaborative extension of the artist’s creative vision, bringing fresh perspectives and professional musicianship to the table.
• Repair of Rhythms: Precision in rhythm is paramount in professional music. This service focuses on correcting timing issues, quantizing instruments, or tightening up grooves to ensure that all musical elements are perfectly aligned and contribute to a cohesive and professional-sounding rhythm section.
• Vocal Fine-Tuning: Vocals are often the centerpiece of a song, and Baselines Designs provides meticulous vocal fine-tuning. This includes pitch correction, timing adjustments, and processing to ensure that the vocals are polished, expressive, and sit perfectly within the mix. This is crucial for achieving broadcast-quality vocal performances.
• Mix and Master: The final stages of production for a single song are integrated into this comprehensive package.
  • Mixing involves balancing all individual tracks (vocals, drums, guitars, keys, etc.) in terms of volume, panning, equalization (EQ), compression, and effects (reverb, delay, etc.). The goal is to create a cohesive soundstage where every element is clear, impactful, and contributes to the overall emotional message of the song.
  • Mastering is the final step in audio post-production, preparing the mixed track for distribution. It involves optimizing the overall loudness, tonal balance, stereo width, and dynamics to ensure the song sounds consistent and excellent across all playback systems (streaming services, radio, CDs, etc.). It ensures the song meets industry standards for commercial release.

The output for their Full Production service, and indeed all their audio production services, is delivered in high-quality formats suitable for professional distribution: 24-bit and 16-bit WAV files, as well as 320kbps MP3 files at a -14 LUFS (Loudness Units Full Scale) standard, or according to specific client specifications. These technical specifications ensure that the audio is ready for platforms like Spotify, Apple Music, and other digital distributors.

Specialized Audio Services

In addition to the full production package, Baselines Designs offers individual, targeted services for clients who may only require specific aspects of the audio production process:

• Mix and Master (Standalone Service): For artists who have completed their tracking and arrangement but need professional mixing and mastering, this service offers the combined expertise of both crucial post-production stages for a single song. It?s ideal for those confident in their recordings but requiring professional polish.
• Mix (Standalone Service): This service focuses exclusively on the mixing aspect for a single song. Clients provide their recorded multitracks, and Baselines Designs takes charge of balancing, processing, and shaping the sound of each individual instrument and vocal track to create a cohesive and impactful stereo mix. The output for standalone mix services is typically a 24-bit WAV file at -18 LUFS, allowing further mastering if desired.
• Master (Standalone Service): Designed for tracks that have already been professionally mixed, this service provides the final mastering touch for a single song. Baselines Designs ensures that the track achieves optimal loudness, clarity, and stereo imaging for commercial release across all platforms, delivering the final product in industry-standard formats.

Album Production

For artists embarking on larger projects, Baselines Designs extends its expertise to Album Production. This service offers a discounted rate for multiple songs, typically with a minimum of five songs per project and accommodating up to ten songs in an album package. This comprehensive solution for albums includes the full range of production services (arrangement, new parts, rhythm repair, vocal fine-tuning, mixing, and mastering) applied to each track within the album. The album production service aims to ensure sonic consistency and a cohesive artistic statement across the entire body of work, providing artists with a unified, professionally produced album ready for release.

Target Clientele and Value Proposition

Baselines Designs primarily serves independent musicians, bands, singer-songwriters, and potentially other content creators (e.g., podcasters, filmmakers requiring custom music) who seek high-quality audio production without necessarily needing a traditional record label or large studio budget. Their pricing structure, which is clearly listed per service, provides transparency and accessibility for artists operating within various financial constraints.

The value proposition of Baselines Designs lies in its ability to transform raw musical recordings into professionally engineered and polished tracks. By leveraging their expertise in arrangement, performance refinement, mixing, and mastering, they enable artists to achieve a competitive edge in the digital music landscape, ensuring their music sounds its best across all listening platforms. Their focus on technical excellence (delivering high-resolution WAV files and industry-standard MP3s with specified loudness levels) coupled with creative input helps artists realize their full artistic potential and present their work with confidence to a global audience.

This is my version of the old Steely Dan song ‘Rikki Don’t Lose That Number’.

“Rikki Don’t Lose That Number” is a single released in 1974 by the American rock band Steely Dan and the opening track of their third album Pretzel Logic. It was the most successful single of the group’s career, peaking at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the summer of 1974.^[3]

The song features Jim Gordon on drums, as does the bulk of the Pretzel Logic album. The guitar solo is by Jeff “Skunk” Baxter who soon after joined The Doobie Brothers.

Victor Feldman‘s flapamba introduction to the song, which opens the album, is cut from the original ABC single version.^[4] The MCA single reissue (backed with “Pretzel Logic”) includes the flapamba intro but fades out just before the actual end of the track. The introductory riff is an almost direct copy of the intro of Horace Silver‘s jazz classic “Song for My Father“.^[5][6]

Appraisal

Reviewing the single for AllMusic, Stewart Mason said:

Just to clear up a generation’s worth of rumors about the lyrics of “Rikki Don’t Lose That Number,” Walter Becker stated for the record in a 1985 interview in the pages of Musician that the “number” in question was not slang for a marijuana cigarette (“send it off in a letter to yourself,” supposedly a way to safely transport one’s dope back before the post office abolished general delivery mail,^[a] was held up as the key line), and an uncharacteristically forthcoming Donald Fagen has similarly revealed that the “Rikki” in question was simply a woman he’d had a crush on in college [writer Rikki Ducornet]. It says something about Steely Dan’s reputation as obscurantists that even a straightforward lost-love song like “Rikki Don’t Lose That Number” could be so widely over-interpreted. … It’s unsurprising that “Rikki Don’t Lose That Number” ended up becoming Steely Dan’s biggest commercial hit … as it’s one of the group’s most gentle and accessible songs.^[8]

Billboard described it as a “catchy, almost tango-like tune.”^[9] Cash Box said that the “strong accent on harmonies with keyboard and percussion dominating the musical end make for a very entertaining track.”^[10] Record World said that the “salty Latin-ish sound is in an easy vein” and that the song was a “totally nifty number.”^[11] John Lennon, in a 1974 interview discussing recent hit songs, said “I liked “Rikki Don’t Lose That Number,” that was a good commercial record.”^[12]

Personnel

• Donald Fagen – lead and backing vocals
• Jeff Baxter – electric guitar
• Dean Parks – acoustic guitar
• Michael Omartian – piano
• Walter Becker – bass guitar, backing vocals
• Jim Gordon – drums
• Victor Feldman – percussion, flapamba
• Timothy B. Schmit – backing vocals

Technical

• Gary Katz – Producer
• Roger Nichols – Engineer

Flapamba

Flapamba (from the Emil Richards Collection)
Percussion instrument
Classification	Keyboard percussion
Hornbostel–Sachs classification	111.212 (Sets of percussion sticks)
Inventor(s)	Brent Seawell
Playing range
F2–C4 or C4–C6

The flapamba is a musical instrument in the percussion family. It consists of tuned wooden bars pinched on one side over the node and mounted over resonator boxes. Sliding the bars slightly forward or backward affects their tuning. Unlike the marimba or xylophone, the sound is not as focused tonally. It is a bit more percussive, sounding closer to tuned log drums.^[1]

History

The original flapamba was invented in the 1960s by Brent Seawell. Studio percussionist Emil Richards later bought the flapamba from the Professional Drum Shop in Hollywood and added it to his instrument collection. Richards started using it in recording sessions and let other studios rent it out, leading to its inclusion in several film scores. To play it, he used either soft mallets or his fingers to get a warm, resonant sound. This original flapamba had a range from middle C up two full octaves (from C₄ to C₆ in scientific pitch notation).^[2]

In 2009, Richards decided to extend the lower range of the instrument. Specialty mallet craftsman Chris Banta made new bars spanning F₂ to C₄ and dubbed this the “bass flapamba”. He also replaced the bars on the original set to create a consistent sound between the two. Both sets combined have a range from F₂ to C₆.^[3]

Use

The flapamba can most often be heard in film music, such as on Michael Giacchino‘s soundtrack for Lost.^[4] Composer Elmer Bernstein used it on the soundtrack for McQ.^[5] The beginning of the Steely Dan track “Rikki Don’t Lose That Number” features Victor Feldman playing the flapamba, although his contribution was cut from the single version.^[6][7]

My cover of a great old Lovin Spoonful song from the 60’s.

“Summer in the City” is a song by the Canadian-American folk-rock band the Lovin’ Spoonful. Written by John Sebastian, Mark Sebastian and Steve Boone, the song was released as a non-album single in July 1966 and was included on the album Hums of the Lovin’ Spoonful later that year. The single was the Lovin’ Spoonful’s fifth to break the top ten in the United States, and the only one by the group to reach number one. A departure from the band’s lighter sound, the recording features a harder rock style. The lyrics differ from most songs about the summer by lamenting the heat, contrasting the unpleasant warmth and noise of the daytime with the relief offered by the cool night, which allows for the nightlife to begin.

John Sebastian reworked the lyrics and melody of “Summer in the City” from a song written by his teenage brother Mark. Boone contributed the song’s bridge while in the studio. The Lovin’ Spoonful recorded “Summer in the City” in two sessions at Columbia Records’ 7th Avenue Studio in New York in March 1966. Erik Jacobsen produced the sessions with assistance from engineer Roy Halee, while Artie Schroeck performed as a session musician on a Wurlitzer electric piano. The recording is an early instance in pop music of added sound effects, made up of car horns and a pneumatic drill to mimic city noises.

“Summer in the City” has since received praise from several music critics and musicologists for its changing major-minor keys and its inventive use of sound effects. The song has been covered by several artists, including Quincy Jones, whose 1973 version won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement and has since been sampled by numerous hip hop artists.

Background and composition

[Our first two singles were] the best commercial material we had on hand. Now that we are established we can be a little freer in our choice of music.^[6]

– John Sebastian, May 1966

The Lovin’ Spoonful completed their first two albums, Do You Believe in Magic and Daydream, over a period of six months. In need of new material for their next LP, John Sebastian, the band’s principal songwriter, recalled a song composed and informally taped by his teenage brother, Mark,^[7] titled “It’s a Different World”.^{[8][note 1]} Written when Mark was 14,^[9] it featured a bossa nova-like sound and rudimentary lyrics,^[8] written in the style of soul singer Sam Cooke.^[10]

John expanded on Mark’s original composition,^[8] reworking the melody and “[replacing] Mark’s laconic verses with more vital, upbeat ones.”^[11] John was pleased with Mark’s original line, “But at night it’s a different world”, determining that the verse before that point needed to build up tension toward an eventual release:^[12] “I was going for the scary, minor chord, hit-the-road-Jack chord sequence that doesn’t warn you of what’s coming in the chorus.”^[10] He later compared his resulting first verse to the tension established in Modest Mussorgsky‘s Night on Bald Mountain, which he knew from the 1940 film Fantasia.^[12] He incorporated into the verse a riff session player Artie Schroeck had played between takes during their sessions for the What’s Up, Tiger Lily? soundtrack.^[8] While recording the song, the band determined that a bridge or middle eight was needed to complement John’s “tense” and “free-swinging” parts, prompting bassist Steve Boone to suggest a “jazzy figure”, a “piano interlude” which he later said “sounded a little bit like [American pianist] George Gershwin“.^[13]

Lyrics and music

While most songs about summer romanticize warm weather, the lyrics of “Summer in the City” lament the heat of the daytime.^[14] The combined unpleasantness of the daytime heat and noise are directly contrasted with the relief offered by nighttime, whose cooler temperatures allow for city nightlife to begin, consisting in dancing and finding dates. Sadness returns again when the singer complains that the days in the city cannot be like the nights.^[3]

The song opens with two descending notes (a flattened or minor sixth followed by a perfect fifth degree of a minor scale) played three times.^[15] This intro is played in octaves by the lead guitar, bass and electric piano. On the fourth beat of each bar, a snare and bass drum smash.^[16] While the two note descent establishes the song in a minor mode, the verse suggests a Dorian mode. The vocal of the verse is entirely minor-pentatonic. John’s arpeggiation on the major V (heard at “[5] all around, [7] people lookin’ [2] half dead”, as noted by Everett) confirms the mode is minor before immediately shifting back to major when his voice is joined in harmony (heard at “hotter than a matchhead”).^[15]

In contrast to the verse, the next section, which Everett writes “ought to be called the bridge”, is a major mode, suggestive of the “different world” of the night described in the lyrics.^[15] It repeats IV–♭VII four times before breaking with the ii–V–ii–V chord progression^[15] suggested by Boone.^[13] The bridge further functions to emphasize the dorian quality of the next verse. The song alternates between verse and bridge again before a second break transitions to an instrumental coda, finishing the song on the major mode.^[15]

Recording

The Lovin’ Spoonful recorded “Summer in the City” in March 1966 at Columbia Records’ 7th Avenue Studio in New York City.^[17][18] Erik Jacobsen produced the song with assistance from engineer Roy Halee.^[17] The band completed the song across two sessions.^[19] In the first session, they recorded the instrumental track in four steps. The basic track featured drums, an organ, electric piano and rhythm guitar.^[20] John struggled to play the Wurlitzer electric piano part, prompting the arranger Artie Schroeck to step in as a session musician.^{[21][note 2]} Boone overdubbed his bass guitar while John played autoharp, and a guitar was added on another layer.^[23] The last instrumental overdub added extra percussion;^[20] Halee placed a microphone inside a garbage can,^[24] which Yanovsky then struck with a drumstick.^[20] Halee described the resultant sound as “a gigantic explosion”.^[24]

I went in for the overdubs and mixing. … Just to sit there and hear my song, much changed, become this thing … It was crazy how it sounded. It was gigantic.^[17]

– Mark Sebastian, 2021

Too tired to continue recording during the initial session, John instead sang his lead vocal the next night.^[20] Yanovsky and Joe Butler contributed backing vocals.^[17] After hearing the initial playback, Yanovsky complained that the song’s percussion was not loud enough, expressing to Halee: “I want the drums to sound like garbage cans being thrown down a steel staircase.”^[25] To increase the amount of reverb,^[24] Halee placed a microphone on the eighth floor of a metal staircase and a large speaker on the ground floor.^[20][24] He later duplicated the effect with the same staircase when recording Simon & Garfunkel‘s 1969 single “The Boxer“.^{[20][note 3]} The song originally closed with a loud crash caused by a kicked Fender Reverb. Displeased with this ending, Jacobsen removed it and instead inserted a copy of the last verse and chorus for an instrumental fade out.^[17]

During the sessions, the band suggested to Jacobsen that they add “city” noises to the track, such as the sound of traffic or a construction crew.^[12][26] During a separate session, a radio soundman brought in an assembly of taped sound effects.^[12] The group listened to the effects on a portable reel-to-reel recorder before deciding on the sound of car horns and a pneumatic drill.^[20] The effects were among the first on a pop song to employ an overlapping crossfade, an effect that had typically only been used on comedy albums.^[27] Mixing for “Summer in the City” concluded after the Lovin’ Spoonful returned from Europe in May 1966.^[28]

Release and commercial performance

Kama Sutra Records released “Summer in the City” as a single on July 4, 1966.^[8][17] In the U.S. and several other countries, Boone’s country song “Butchie’s Tune” was used as the B-side, while in other countries, “Fishin’ Blues” was used.^[29] The single’s release corresponded with a record heat wave in New York City^[9] – peaking in June and July at 102 °F (39 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) in August – and came shortly after a similar heat wave experienced by Britain in the end of June.^[30] An advertisement promoting the single was published in the July 2 issue of Billboard magazine, promising it would “capture the feel … of Summer in the City”.^[31] Author Jon Savage compares the ad’s imagery, which depicts three silhouetted black boys playing with a fire hydrant, to that of a riot in Chicago’s West Side which began on July 12 after police stopped young blacks from using a fire hydrant to cool off.^[32]

“Summer in the City” was the Lovin’ Spoonful’s fifth single,^[30] and one of six released between December 1965 and December 1966 that reached the top ten in the US.^[33] The release rose quickly;^[30] Billboard classified it as a breakout single across the U.S. on July 16,^[34] and it jumped from number 21 to number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 on July 30.^[30] On August 13,^[30] it overtook the Troggs‘ “Wild Thing“^[35] to become the Lovin’ Spoonful’s only number one.^[33] It held the position for three weeks, becoming what author Jon Savage terms the “American song of the summer”,^[30] before losing the top spot to Donovan‘s “Sunshine Superman“.^[35] In addition to reaching number one on Cash Box^[36] and Record World‘s Top 100 charts,^[37] it was number one in Canada.^[38] “Summer in the City” was later sequenced as the closing track on the album Hums of the Lovin’ Spoonful,^[39] released in November 1966.^[40]

Kama Sutra issued “Summer in the City” in the U.K. on July 8, 1966,^[41] instead backed with “Bald Headed Lena”.^[42] Following the success of the band’s single “Daydream“, which reached number two in the country in May 1966,^[43] expectations were similarly high for “Summer in the City”.^[44] Coincident with the single’s release, the band announced plans for a second tour of Britain, to be held in October,^[41] but the tour was delayed after the single failed to enter the top five.^[44] It peaked at number eight on the U.K.’s Record Retailer Chart.^[43]

“Summer in the City” has a harder sound than the Lovin’ Spoonful’s previous output.^[3][45] Boone later expressed pleasure that the song departed from the band’s softer image,^[20] helping to quickly change the attitudes of those who asked him when they were going to make “a real rock song”.^[17] While the band’s next single, “Rain on the Roof“, reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100,^[46] both Butler and Boone felt it was a mistake to release the song as the follow-up to “Summer in the City”.^[47] John contended the band ought to avoid releasing consecutive singles that sounded too similar.^[48] However, Boone worried the return to a softer sound would alienate the band’s new fans.^[17][48] He later remarked: “I wonder how many people heard ‘Rain on the Roof’ on their radios in the early fall of 1966 and said, ‘Oh, they’re back to the wimpy shit,’ and disregarded us all over again.”^[48] After 1966, the band did not achieve the same level of success;^[11] Yanovsky and Boone were arrested in California in May 1966 for marijuana possession, and Yanovsky and John left the band in 1967 and 1968, respectively.^{[17][note 4]}

Critical reception

Contemporary reviews

Among contemporary reviews, Cash Box magazine predicted a “sure-fire blockbuster”, describing the song’s “repeating hard-driving riff” as “contagious”.^[49] Record World‘s review panel selected the song as one of their three “single picks of the week”, describing it as “[w]ild, experimental, hypnotic, terrific, positive in approach and a powerhouse release”.^[50] In the UK, Melody Maker‘s reviewer wrote that the song displayed the musical diversity of the Lovin’ Spoonful, given its divergence in style from their earlier 1966 single, “Daydream“, and predicted its inclusion on Hums of the Lovin’ Spoonful would boost album sales in both the U.S. and the U.K.^[51]

In Billboard, Johnny Borders, the program director of KLIF in Dallas, reported that while the radio station’s early summer rotation had been based around oldies due to the poor quality of new music, the release of “Summer in the City” improved the situation.^[52] David Dachs’ 1968 book, Inside Pop, discusses the song in the context of the Lovin’ Spoonful’s diverse styles, while also writing its lyrics display “a hip and jazzy swing”.^[53]

Retrospective assessments

In a retrospective assessment, author Ian MacDonald categorizes “Summer in the City” as a “cutting-edge pop [record]”^[54] and one of many “futuristic singles” to appear in 1966, such as the Beach Boys‘ “Good Vibrations“, the Byrds‘ “Eight Miles High” and the Four Tops‘ “Reach Out I’ll Be There“, among others.^[55] He describes it as representative of a time period when recorded songs began to employ sounds and effects difficult or impossible to recreate during a live performance; when the Lovin’ Spoonful played the song in concert, John was unable to both sing and play the piano part simultaneously, requiring Butler to perform the lead vocal.^[54]

Musicologist Charlie Gillett describes the song as one of the band’s “evocative ‘atmosphere’ songs”, serving as an alternative to their softer love songs through its “surprising power and intensity”.^[56] Richie Unterberger similarly writes that it proved the band’s ability to extend beyond “sunshine and light”,^[57] praising its major-minor shifts and describing the sound effects as “particularly inventive” while “mercifully” not being overdone.^[3] Musician Chris Stamey describes the song as a “fantastic, cinematic record” and highlights the same features as Unterberger, particularly the major-minor changes which help emphasize the two different musical moods.^[58] In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, Paul Evans also commends the sound effects and key signature changes, writing the latter retains both “a sense of wonder and deliberate naiveté”.^[59]

In the judgment of author Paul Simpson, “Summer in the City” is the song for which the Lovin’ Spoonful are best known,^[60] and author Robert Santelli describes it as the band’s “most potent” song, its “forceful, aggressive” format more representative of rock than the band’s traditional folk rock style.^[61] Authors Keith and Kent Zimmerman call it “a twentieth-century pop classic”, comparing it to Gershwin’s An American in Paris and Richard Rodgers‘ Slaughter on Tenth Avenue.^[62] Author Arnold Shaw describes the use of effects as skillful and anticipatory of those heard on the Beatles‘ 1967 album, Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band,^[63] while author James E. Perone describes them as an example of audio vérité, concluding the song remains “one of the most iconic songs of summer of the sound-recording era in the United States.”^[11] In 2014, Billboard ranked the song at number 29 in a list of the top 30 summer songs,^[11] and in 2011, Rolling Stone placed it at number 401 on the magazine’s list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.^[64]

Appearance in media and other versions

“Summer in the City” served as the main theme of German filmmaker Wim Wenders‘ first feature film, Summer in the City (1971). In opposition to the song’s theme of the hot summer, it plays over a scene where the main character walks through a cold and snowy day.^[3] The song has remained relevant into the 21st century,^[17] being regularly featured in television shows, movies and advertisements.^[35]

“Summer in the City” has since been covered by numerous artists, including Styx, Joe Cocker and Isaac Hayes.^[9][65] Blues guitarist B. B. King covered the song on his 1972 album, Guess Who, a version critic Robert Christgau describes as “clumsy”,^[66] and which Bill Dahl of AllMusic suggests indicates King’s lack of new material.^[67] The American indie band Eels recorded a cover that appeared on the deluxe edition of their 2013 album, Wonderful, Glorious, later described by Boone as “spooky and cool dirge-like”.^[35]

Quincy Jones recorded the song’s most successful cover,^[68] released on his October 1973 album You’ve Got It Bad Girl.^[69] Valerie Simpson sings lead on the cover, supported by Eddie Louis on organ and Dave Grusin on electric piano.^[69] Author Bob Leszczak describes the smooth jazz version as almost unrecognizable when compared to the original,^[68] and Andy Kellman of AllMusic writes that Jones transforms the “frantic, bug-eyed energy” of the original into a “magnetically lazy drift”.^[69] The cover reached 102 on Billboard‘s Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart^[68] and won Jones the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement at the 16th Annual Grammy Awards.^[70] Jones’ version has been sampled by numerous hip hop artists,^[17][35] including on the Pharcyde‘s 1992 song “Passin’ Me By“,^[71] which incorporates the organ intro.^[72]

A cover of an old Cat Stevens song – Dave Overland on vocals.

“Wild World” is a song written and recorded by English singer-songwriter Cat Stevens. It first appeared on his fourth album, Tea for the Tillerman (1970). Released as a single in September 1970 by Island Records and A&M Records, “Wild World” saw significant commercial success, garnering attention for its themes of love and heartbreak, and has been covered numerous times since its release. Maxi Priest and Mr. Big (released in 1988 and 1993 respectively) had successful cover versions of the song.

Song meaning

Stevens developed a relationship with actress Patti D’Arbanville and the two were a pair for roughly two years. During that time, he wrote several songs about her, including “Wild World”.

The song is in the form of the singer’s words to his departing lover, inspired by the end of their romance. Stevens later recalled to Mojo: “It was one of those chord sequences that’s very common in Spanish music. I turned it around and came up with that theme—which is a recurring theme in my work—which is to do with leaving, the sadness of leaving, and the anticipation of what lies beyond.”^[1]

Released as a single in late 1970, it peaked at No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.^[2] “Wild World” has been credited as the song that gave Stevens’ next album, Tea for the Tillerman, “enough kick” to get it played on FM radio; and Island Records’ Chris Blackwell called it “the best album we’ve ever released”.^[3]

In November 2008, the Tea for the Tillerman CD was re-issued in a deluxe version which included the original demo of “Wild World”.

Interpretation

Some critics and music writers have deemed “Wild World” to be condescending and misogynistic.^[4][5][6] In her 1971 essay “But Now I’m Gonna Move,” critic Ellen Willis described a method of revealing male bias in lyrics in which the listener imagines the genders reversed:

By this test, a diatribe like ‘Under My Thumb‘ is not nearly so sexist in its implications as, for example, Cat Stevens’s gentle, sympathetic ‘Wild World’; Jagger‘s fantasy of sweet revenge could easily be female—in fact, it has a female counterpart, Nancy Sinatra‘s ‘Boots’ — but it’s hard to imagine a woman sadly warning her ex-lover that he’s too innocent for the big bad world out there.^[7]

(I gotta add in my pissing and moaning here. This is total bullshit – Ellen Willis should be ashamed of herself for this analogy. – Steve)

Personnel

• Cat Stevens – classical guitar, acoustic guitar, keyboards, lead vocals
• Alun Davies – acoustic guitar, backing vocals
• Harvey Burns – drums, congas, tambourine
• John Ryan – double bass

A trip to western Massachusetts in Autumn is good for the soul.

Joe Jackson cover. Doug Cross on vocals.

Joe Jackson

Joe Jackson
Jackson performing in 1982
Background information
Birth name	David Ian Jackson
Born	11 August 1954 (age 70) Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire, England
Origin	Portsmouth, Hampshire, England
Genres	Rockpopnew wave[1]jazzclassical[2]
Occupations	Musiciansingersongwriter
Instruments	Vocalskeyboardssaxophone
Years active	1970–present
Labels	A&MSony ClassicalVirginEMIRykodiscE1Koch
Website	joejackson.com

David Ian “Joe” Jackson (born 11 August 1954)^[1] is an English musician, singer and songwriter. Having spent years studying music and playing clubs, he found early success with his hit new wave singles “Is She Really Going Out with Him?” and “It’s Different for Girls“. After he moved to more jazz-inflected pop music, Jackson achieved a worldwide hit with “Steppin’ Out“. Jackson is associated with the 1980s Second British Invasion of the US.^[3] He has also composed classical music. He has recorded 21 studio albums and has received five Grammy Award nominations.^[4]

Early years

Born in Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire, England,^[5] David Jackson spent his first year in nearby Swadlincote, Derbyshire. He grew up in the Paulsgrove area of Portsmouth, where he attended Portsmouth Technical High School. Jackson’s parents moved to nearby Gosport when he was a teenager. He learned to play the violin but soon switched to the piano, and prevailed on his father to install one in the hall of their Paulsgrove council house. Jackson began playing piano in bars when he was 16, and won a scholarship to study musical composition at London’s Royal Academy of Music.^[5]

Career

[edit]

Jackson’s first band, formed in Gosport, was called Edward Bear,^{[note 1]} later renamed Arms and Legs.^[5] The band broke up in 1976 after two unsuccessful singles. He was still known as David Jackson when he joined Arms and Legs, but picked up the nickname “Joe” based on his perceived resemblance to the British television puppet character Joe 90, a genius child spy. Jackson legally changed his name to Joe at age 20.^[6][7] Jackson then spent some time performing on the cabaret circuit to make money to record a demo.

Joe Jackson Band

In 1978, a record producer heard Jackson’s demo tape and signed him to A&M Records.^[5] The next year, the newly formed Joe Jackson Band released their debut album, Look Sharp!^[5] The band consisted of Jackson, Gary Sanford on guitar, Graham Maby on bass, and David Houghton on drums. A mix of rock, melodic jazz, and new wave, it mined a vein similar to contemporaries Elvis Costello and Graham Parker. The album enjoyed wide critical success: in 2013, Rolling Stone magazine named Look Sharp! number 98 in a list of the 100 best debut albums of all time. Some commercial success also followed, as the debut single “Is She Really Going Out with Him?” reached the top 40 in five countries, and No. 9 in Canada.

The Joe Jackson Band released I’m the Man in 1979.^[5] The album followed a similar musical pattern, and received good, though not as strong, reviews. It did produce the single “It’s Different for Girls“, which became Jackson’s highest charting UK single, peaking at No. 5.^[8] Beat Crazy followed in 1980.^[5] Jackson also collaborated with Lincoln Thompson in reggae crossover.^[4]

The Joe Jackson Band toured extensively until it broke up at the end of 1980, when Houghton, weary of touring and fame, left the band.^[9] Though Maby would continue to work with Jackson in the following decades, the full band would not reunite until 2004’s Volume 4.

Change in style

In 1981, Jackson produced an album for the British power pop group the Keys. The Keys Album was the group’s only LP.^[10]

After the Joe Jackson Band disbanded, Jackson recorded Jumpin’ Jive, an album of old-style swing and blues tunes. It included songs by Cab Calloway, Lester Young, Glenn Miller, and Louis Jordan.^[5] The album and associated single release were credited to “Joe Jackson’s Jumpin’ Jive”.^[4]

Jackson’s 1982 album, Night and Day,^[5] was his only studio album to chart in the UK and US Top 10, peaking at No. 3 (UK)^[8] and at No. 4 (US).^[11] Two singles released from the album, “Steppin’ Out” and “Breaking Us in Two“, were US top 20 hits. The tracks “Real Men” and “A Slow Song” referred obliquely to New York City’s early 1980s gay culture, critiquing its exclusiveness and asking for a slow song in the disco respectively.^[12] “Real Men” also became a top 10 hit in Australia.^[13]

By 1984, New York had become Jackson’s home base.^[5] He recorded Body and Soul there,^[5] an album he later said was “from the point of view of a relative newcomer”.^[14] Heavily influenced by pop, jazz standards and salsa, it had the US No. 15 hit single “You Can’t Get What You Want (Till You Know What You Want)“.^[15]

In 1985, Jackson played piano on Joan Armatrading‘s album Secret Secrets, and in 1986 he collaborated with Suzanne Vega on the single “Left of Center” from Pretty in Pink‘s soundtrack. Jackson’s next album was Big World, with all-new songs recorded live in front of an audience instructed to remain silent while music was playing. Released in 1986, it was a three-sided double record; the fourth side consisted of a single centering groove and a label stating “there is no music on this side”.

The instrumental album Will Power (1987), with heavy classical and jazz influences, set the stage for things to come later, but before Jackson left pop behind, he released two more albums, Blaze of Glory (which he performed in its entirety during the subsequent tour) and Laughter & Lust.^[5] In 1995, Jackson contributed his version of “Statue of Liberty” on a tribute album for the English band XTC called A Testimonial Dinner: The Songs of XTC.

Post-pop

In the late 1990s, Jackson expanded into classical music; he signed with Sony Classical in 1997 and released Symphony No. 1 in 1999, for which he received a Grammy for Best Pop Instrumental Album in 2001.^[16] In 2000, he released a follow-up album, Night and Day II.^[17]

In 2003, he reunited his original quartet^[4] for the album Volume 4, and a lengthy tour. In 2004, he contributed vocals to a cover of Pulp‘s “Common People” with William Shatner for Shatner’s album Has Been (produced by Ben Folds). In 2005, he teamed up with Todd Rundgren and the string quartet ETHEL for a tour of the US and Europe. A dedicated smoker, he gave up his New York apartment in 2006 partly in protest over the ascendancy of smoking bans, and made the Berlin neighbourhood Kreuzberg his new home. It was there that he recorded, with longtime collaborators Graham Maby and Dave Houghton, his eighteenth studio album, Rain (Rykodisc, January 2008); the album was followed by a five-month tour.^[18]

In 2015, Jackson announced the completion of his follow-up to 2012’s The Duke via his official website. The album’s title, Fast Forward, and track list were confirmed in addition to North American tour dates. The titular first single was released for streaming via his official SoundCloud page. The entire record was briefly posted before being taken down a day later.^[19]

On 18 January 2019, Jackson released the album Fool. Jackson said about the album on his website: “One of my inspirations for this album was the band I’ve been touring with on and off for the last 3 years. I’ve had many different line-ups but this one is special.” Jackson and the band performed “Fabulously Absolute” on Jimmy Fallon’s Tonight Show on 21 January 2019.^[20] Fool debuted in the top 20 album charts in Holland, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. In the US, it debuted at No. 25 on Billboard’s Top Album Sales Chart. In the UK, it entered the Indie Albums Chart at No. 13.

What a Racket!, also known as Mr. Joe Jackson Presents Max Champion in ‘What a Racket!’ , his 21st studio album, was released by earMUSIC on 24 November 2023. ^[21]

Personal life

Jackson spent a number of years living in New York City, which served as an inspiration for his 1982 song “Steppin’ Out”. In a 2018 interview, Jackson said “I don’t like New York much these days. It’s as if the city and I had a hot love affair and now we’re just friends, but we still have to see each other to remain friends. Today I live in Berlin. The New York I knew in late ’81 and ’82 is gone.”^[22] Jackson currently resides in Berlin; he also owns homes in New York and Portsmouth.^[23]

Jackson was married to his wife Ruth for two years, but the marriage ended in divorce and was later called a “disaster” by Jackson. In a 2001 interview with the Irish Independent, Jackson said he was in a relationship with a male partner.^[24] Jackson had previously discussed his bisexuality in his autobiography A Cure for Gravity.^[25] His questioning of potential homosexuality and same-sex attraction is explored in the 1982 single “Real Men“.^[26]

Other activities

Jackson has actively campaigned against smoking bans in both the United States and the United Kingdom, publishing a 2005 pamphlet (The Smoking Issue)^[27] and a 2007 essay (Smoke, Lies and the Nanny State),^[28] and recording a satirical song (“In 20-0-3“) on the subject.^[29]

Jackson’s 1999 autobiography, A Cure for Gravity, was described by him as a “book about music, thinly disguised as a memoir”. It traces his working-class upbringing in Portsmouth and charts his musical life from childhood until his 24th birthday. According to Jackson, life as a pop star was hardly worth writing about.^[6]

Discography

Main article: Joe Jackson discography

• Look Sharp! (1979)
• I’m the Man (1979)
• Beat Crazy (1980)
• Joe Jackson’s Jumpin’ Jive (1981)
• Night and Day (1982)
• Mike’s Murder (1983)
• Body and Soul (1984)
• Big World (1986)
• Will Power (1987)
• Tucker (1988)
• Blaze of Glory (1989)
• Laughter & Lust (1991)
• Night Music (1994)
• Heaven & Hell (1997)
• Symphony No. 1 (1999)
• Night and Day II (2000)
• Volume 4 (2003)
• Rain (2008)
• The Duke (2012)
• Fast Forward (2015)
• Fool (2019)
• What a Racket! (2023)

Bibliography

A Cure for Gravity, 1999, autobiography ISBN 1-86230-083-6

Here’s a cover of the old John Sebastian song.

“Darling Be Home Soon” is a song written by John Sebastian of the Lovin’ Spoonful for the soundtrack of the 1966 Francis Ford Coppola film You’re a Big Boy Now. It appeared on the Lovin’ Spoonful’s 1967 soundtrack album You’re a Big Boy Now. Sebastian performed his composition at Woodstock; it was the fourth song out of the five he performed at the 1969 music festival in White Lake, New York.

Writing and recording

Coppola commissioned Sebastian to write music for the film, and for one scene wanted a song with a similar mood and tempo to “Monday, Monday” by the Mamas and the Papas. Sebastian said that he wrote the song as “pleas for a partner to spend a few minutes talking before leaving…. [but] you never knew if the other person was actually there listening or was already gone”. Coppola approved the song, and it was recorded by the band but with session musician Billy LaVorgna rather than Joe Butler on drums. The arrangement was by Artie Schroeck. After the recording was completed and the musicians left, the producer, Erik Jacobsen, discovered that an engineer had mistakenly erased Sebastian’s vocal track, so he had to re-record it the next day. Sebastian said: “What you hear on the record is me, a half hour after learning that my original vocal track had been erased. You can even hear my voice quiver a little at the end. That was me thinking about the vocal we lost and wanting to kill someone.”^[4] It has been described as “…one of the most heartfelt songs about being away from a loved one, written from the point of view of a musician on the road writing a letter.”^[5]

Billboard described the song as a “medium-paced rock ballad given that ‘extra special’ Lovin’ Spoonful treatment” and should be a “smash” on the Billboard Hot 100.^[6] The critic Richard Goldstein, one of the earliest champions of the Spoonful,^[7] criticized the song as the band’s first disappointing single.^[8] In his review for The Village Voice, he disparaged the song as a tribute to Bob Dylan which “lacks the master’s raunchiness”.^[8] The Beatles regularly praised the Spoonful in interviews,^[9] but when Paul McCartney reviewed the latest singles for Melody Maker in February 1967,^[10] he criticized “Darling Be Home Soon” for its instrumentation, which he thought “very ordinary” and “corny”.^[11] While complimenting Sebastian’s vocal, McCartney hypothesized that the film studio pressured the band to keep the song’s arrangement “flimsy”.^[11]

Personnel

According to John Sebastian:^[12]

The Lovin’ Spoonful

• John Sebastian – vocals, acoustic guitar
• Zal Yanovsky – electric guitar
• Steve Boone – bass guitar

Additional musicians

• Bill LaVorgna – drums
• David “Fathead” Newman – saxophone
• Artie Schroeck – arrangement
• Clark Terry – flügelhorn
• Unidentified session musicians – orchestra

Charts

Chart (1967)	Peak position
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[13]	8
Netherlands (Veronica Top 40)[14]	15
Netherlands (Hilversum 3 Top 30)[15]	16
U.K. (Disc and Music Echo)[16][nb 1]	34
U.K. (Melody Maker)[19]	45
U.K. (Record Retailer)[20]	44
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[21]	15
U.S. Cash Box Top 100[22]	15
U.S. Record World 100 Top Pops[23]	11

This is a song by @beckettt – He sings and plays one of the guitars. @pedrobossio on the acoustic, I do the other instruments and @kiwichrys does harmonies.

This is a song writeen by @beckettt on Bandlab. He sings, a great expressive voice from Dublin. I added the instrumentation and produced.

A great Bill Withers song. Darren Garrett on vocals here.

William Harrison Withers Jr. (July 4, 1938 – March 30, 2020) was an American singer and songwriter. He is known for having several hits over a career spanning 18 years, including “Ain’t No Sunshine” (1971), “Grandma’s Hands” (1971), “Use Me” (1972), “Lean on Me” (1972), “Lovely Day” (1977) and “Just the Two of Us” (1980) (recorded in collaboration with Grover Washington Jr.). Withers won three Grammy Awards out of nine total nominations.

His life was the subject of the 2009 documentary film Still Bill.^[2] Withers was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2005 and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2015.^[3][4] Two of his songs, “Ain’t No Sunshine” and “Lean on Me”, were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.^[5]

Early life

William Harrison Withers Jr., the youngest of six children, was born in the small coal mining town of Slab Fork, West Virginia, on July 4, 1938.^[6][7] He was the son of Mattie (née Galloway), a maid, and William Withers, a miner.^[4] Withers was of African-American and English descent. He developed a stutter as a child and later said he had a hard time fitting in.^[8] His parents divorced when he was three, and he was raised by his mother’s family in nearby Beckley, West Virginia, where a commemorative statue of him was unveiled in 2025.^[9] He was 13 years old when his father died.^[8]

Career

Withers enlisted in the United States Navy at the age of 17^[10] and served for nine years, during which time he became interested in singing and writing songs.^[11] He left the Navy in 1965, relocating to Los Angeles in 1967 to start a music career.^[8][10]

His debut release was “Three Nights and a Morning” in 1967. Arranged by Mort Garson, the song went unnoticed at the time but was later reworked by Withers as the track “Harlem.”^[12]

Withers worked as a mechanical assembler for several different companies, including Douglas Aircraft Corporation, IBM and Ford,^[13] while recording demo tapes with his own money, shopping them around, and performing in clubs at night. When he hit with the song “Ain’t No Sunshine” in 1971, he refused to resign from his job because he believed the music business was a fickle industry.^[8]

Music career

Withers continued to work on his musicianship, learning guitar.^[13]

Sussex Records

In early 1970, Withers’ demo tape was auditioned favorably by Clarence Avant, owner of Sussex Records. Avant signed Withers to a record deal and assigned former Stax Records stalwart Booker T. Jones to produce Withers’s first album.^[8] Four three-hour recording sessions were planned for the album, but funding caused the album to be recorded in three sessions with a six-month break between the second and final sessions. Just as I Am was released in 1971 with the tracks, “Ain’t No Sunshine” and “Grandma’s Hands” as singles. The album features Stephen Stills playing lead guitar.^[14] On the cover of the album, Withers is pictured at his job at Weber Aircraft in Burbank, California, holding his lunch box.^[7]

The album was a success, and Withers began touring with a band assembled from members of the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band.^[15] Withers won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Song for “Ain’t No Sunshine” at the 14th Annual Grammy Awards in 1972. The track had already sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA in September 1971.^[16]

During a hiatus from touring, Withers recorded his second album, Still Bill. The single, “Lean on Me” went to number one the week of July 8, 1972. It was Withers’ second gold single with confirmed sales in excess of three million.^[16] His follow-up, “Use Me“, released in August 1972, became his third million-seller, with the R.I.A.A. gold disc award taking place on October 12, 1972.^[16] His performance at Carnegie Hall on October 6, 1972, was recorded and released as the live album Bill Withers, Live at Carnegie Hall on November 30, 1972. In 1974, Withers recorded the album +’Justments.

During this time, he wrote and produced two songs on the Gladys Knight & the Pips album I Feel a Song, and in October 1974 performed in concert together with James Brown, Etta James, and B.B. King in Zaire four weeks prior to the historic Rumble in the Jungle fight between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali.^[17] Footage of his performance was included in the 1996 documentary film When We Were Kings, and he is heard on the accompanying soundtrack. Other footage of his performance is included in the 2008 documentary film Soul Power.^[18]

Withers has said of Sussex Records “They weren’t paying me.” He claims to have erased an entire album that he had recorded for the label in a fit of pique. “I could probably have handled that differently,” he said.^[19] Due to a legal dispute with the Sussex company, Withers was unable to record for some time thereafter.^[20]

Columbia Records

After Sussex Records folded, Withers signed with Columbia Records in 1975.^[13] His first album release with the label, Making Music, included the single “She’s Lonely,” which was featured in the film Looking for Mr. Goodbar along with “She Wants to (Get on Down)”. During the next three years he released an album each year with Naked & Warm (1976), Menagerie (1977; containing the successful “Lovely Day“), and ‘Bout Love (1978).^[21]

Due to problems with Columbia and being unable to get songs approved for his album, he decided to focus on joint projects from 1977 to 1985, including “Just the Two of Us,” with jazz saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., which was released during February 1981.^[22] The song won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song.^[23] Withers next released “Soul Shadows” with the Crusaders, and “In the Name of Love” with Ralph MacDonald,^[24] the latter being nominated for a Grammy for vocal performance.^[23]

In 1982, Withers was a featured vocalist on the album Dreams in Stone by French singer Michel Berger. This record included one composition co-written and sung by Withers, “Apple Pie”^[25] an upbeat disco song about New York City.^[26]

In 1985 came Watching You, Watching Me, which featured the Top 40-rated R&B single “Oh, Yeah!” and ended Withers’ business association with Columbia Records. Withers stated in interviews that a lot of the songs approved for the album—in particular, two of the first three singles released—were the same songs that had been rejected in 1982, contributing significantly to the eight-year hiatus between albums.^[22] Withers also stated it was frustrating seeing his record label release an album for Mr. T, an actor, when they were preventing him, an actual songwriter, from releasing his own. He toured with Jennifer Holliday in 1985 to promote what would be his final studio album.^[22]

Withers’ disdain for Columbia’s A&R executives—or “blaxperts” as he termed them—trying to exert control over his sound to sell more albums played a part in his decision to not record or re-sign with a record label after 1985. This effectively ended his performing career, though remixes of his previously recorded music were released well after his “retirement.”^{[8][11][27][28][29]} Finding musical success later in life than most, at 32, he said he was socialized as a “regular guy” who had a life before the music, so he did not feel an inherent need to keep recording once he fell out of love with the industry.^[8] After he left the music industry, he said that he did not miss touring and performing live and did not regret leaving music behind.^[8][11]

Post-Columbia career

In 1988, a new version of “Lovely Day” from the 1977 Menagerie album, entitled “Lovely Day (Sunshine Mix)” and remixed by Ben Liebrand was released. The original release had reached number 7 in the UK in early 1978, and the re-release climbed higher to number 4.^[30]

At the 30th Annual Grammy Awards in 1988, Withers won the Grammy for Best Rhythm and Blues Song as songwriter for the re-recording of “Lean on Me” by Club Nouveau. This was Withers’ ninth Grammy nomination and third win.^[10] Withers contributed two songs to Jimmy Buffett‘s 2004 release License to Chill. Following the reissues of Still Bill on January 28, 2003, and Just As I Am on March 8, 2005, there was speculation of previously unreleased material being issued as a new album.^[31] In 2006, Sony Music gave Withers’ previously unreleased tapes back to him.^[32] In 2007, “Lean on Me” was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.^[33]

At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014, Bill Withers: The Complete Sussex & Columbia Albums Collection, a nine-disc set featuring Withers’ eight studio albums as well as his live album Live at Carnegie Hall, received the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album (sharing the award with the Rolling Stones’ Charlie Is My Darling – Ireland 1965). The award was presented to Leo Sacks, who produced the collection, and the mastering engineers Mark Wilder, Joseph M. Palmaccio, and Tom Ruff.^[34]

In 2005, Withers was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.^[10] In April 2015, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Stevie Wonder. He described the honor as “an award of attrition” and said: “What few songs I wrote during my brief career, there ain’t a genre that somebody didn’t record them in. I’m not a virtuoso, but I was able to write songs that people could identify with. I don’t think I’ve done bad for a guy from Slab Fork, West Virginia.”^[8][35] Later that year, a tribute concert in his honor was held at Carnegie Hall featuring Aloe Blacc, Ed Sheeran, Dr. John, Michael McDonald, and Anthony Hamilton. The concert recreated Withers’ 1973 concert album, Live at Carnegie Hall, along with some of his other material. Withers was in attendance and spoke briefly onstage.^[36][37]

In February 2017, he made an appearance on Joy Reid‘s MSNBC show to talk about the refugee crisis as well as the political climate in America.^[38]

Still Bill documentary

The 2009 documentary, “Still Bill”, explored his reasons for quitting the music industry and painted the picture of a fulfilled musician and human being. Roger Ebert said: “[Withers] still lives and survives as a happy man. Still Bill is about a man who topped the charts, walked away from it all in 1985 and is pleased that he did.”^[19]

Legacy

Withers is known for his “smooth” baritone vocals and “sumptuous” soul arrangements.^[39] He wrote some of the most covered songs of the 1970s, including “Lean on Me” and “Ain’t No Sunshine.”^[4] The former entered the Hot 100 chart through multiple versions, including Club Nouveau‘s 1987 cover, which made the composition one of nine songs to have led the chart via different acts.^[40] With “Lovely Day”, he set the record for the longest sustained note on an American chart hit, holding a high E for 18 seconds.^[39]

Editors from The Guardian considered that Withers’ songs are “some of the most beloved in the American songbook”, citing, “‘Ain’t No Sunshine’ is regarded as one of the all-time great breakup tracks, while ‘Lean on Me’ [is] an ode to the supportive power of friendship …”^[41] For the same newspaper, Alex Petridis noticed “[he] laid pain and paranoia under his deceptively gentle songs, and retired early having conquered gospel, funk, blues, disco and more.”^[42] In Rolling Stone, Andy Greene noted that several of his songs “are embedded in the culture and have been covered countless times.”^[43]

Writing for The New York Times, Giovanni Russonello considered Withers “[a] soulful singer with a gift for writing understated classics”, adding, “the ultimate homespun hitmaker, he had an innate sense of what might make a song memorable, and little interest in excess attitude or accoutrements. Ultimately Withers reminded us that it’s the everyday that is the most meaningful: work, family, love, loss.”^[44] A Billboard article considered that Withers “stands as one of R&B/soul music’s most revered singer-songwriters.”^[40] In the same magazine, writer Gail Mitchell acknowledged “Withers’ legacy has flourished in the decades since, thanks to a cross-section of artists who have covered/sampled his songs or cited him as a major influence.”^[45]

Musician and music journalist Questlove referred to Withers’ post-breakup 1974 album +’Justments as “a diary […] [it] was a pre-reality-show look at his life. Keep in mind this was years before Marvin Gaye did it with Here, My Dear.”^[8] The Beach Boys‘ Brian Wilson deemed him “a songwriter’s songwriter”.^[39] Musicians Sade,^[46] D’Angelo,^[47] Justin Timberlake,^[48] John Legend^[49] and Ed Sheeran^[7] have credited Withers as a music inspiration.

Withers has been widely sampled by hip hop and pop music artists, including Basehead, Blackstreet, Kendrick Lamar, DMX, Tupac Shakur, Jennifer Lopez and Aaliyah.^[50]

In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Withers at number 106 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.^[51] The Library of Congress‘ National Recording Registry inducted “Ain’t No Sunshine” in the 2024 list of 25 sound recordings.

Personal life

Withers married actress Denise Nicholas in 1973 during her stint on the sitcom Room 222.^[8] They divorced in 1974.^[52]

In 1976, Withers married Marcia Johnson. They had two children, Todd and Kori.^[8] Marcia eventually assumed the direct management of his publishing companies, in which his children also became involved as they became adults.^[53][54]

Withers died from heart complications in a Los Angeles hospital on March 30, 2020, at age 81; his family announced his death four days later.^[55][56]

The family statement read:

We are devastated by the loss of our beloved, devoted husband and father. A solitary man with a heart driven to connect to the world at large, with his poetry and music, he spoke honestly to people and connected them to each other. As private a life as he lived close to intimate family and friends, his music forever belongs to the world. In this difficult time, we pray his music offers comfort and entertainment as fans hold tight to loved ones.^[19]

He is interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park.^[57]

It’s a wonderful thing when someone thinks you are cool and special. One of the best feelings in the world. Makes all the other crap going on seem tolerable.

Romance or romantic love is a feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards another person,^[1] and the courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall feelings and resultant emotions.^[2][3]

The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Family Studies states that “Romantic love, based on the model of mutual attraction and on a connection between two people that bonds them as a couple, creates the conditions for overturning the model of family and marriage that it engenders.”^[4] This indicates that romantic love can be the founding of attraction between two people. This term was primarily used by the “western countries after the 1800s were socialized into, love is the necessary prerequisite for starting an intimate relationship and represents the foundation on which to build the next steps in a family.”

Alternatively, Collins Dictionary describes romantic love as “an intensity and idealization of a love relationship, in which the other is imbued with extraordinary virtue, beauty, etc., so that the relationship overrides all other considerations, including material ones.”^[5]

Although the emotions and sensations of romantic love are widely associated with sexual attraction, they could also exist without sexual attraction. In certain cases, romance could even be interpreted as a normal friendship. Historically, the term romance originates with the medieval ideal of chivalry as set out in the literature of chivalric romance.

People who experience little to no romantic attraction are referred to as aromantic.

General definitions

Bode & Kushnick undertook a comprehensive review of romantic love from a biological perspective in 2021.^[6] They considered the psychology of romantic love, its mechanisms, development across the lifespan, functions, and evolutionary history. Based on the content of that review, they proposed a biological definition of romantic love:^[6]

Romantic love is a motivational state typically associated with a desire for long-term mating with a particular individual. It occurs across the lifespan and is associated with distinctive cognitive, emotional, behavioral, social, genetic, neural, and endocrine activity in both sexes. Throughout much of the life course, it serves mate choice, courtship, sex, and pair-bonding functions. It is a suite of adaptations and by-products that arose sometime during the recent evolutionary history of humans.^[6]

Anthropologist Charles Lindholm defined love as “any intense attraction that involves the idealization of the other, within an erotic context, with expectation of enduring sometime into the future”.^[7]

Historical usage

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The word “romance” comes from the French vernacular where initially it indicated a verse narrative. The word was originally an adverb of Latin origin, “romanicus”, meaning “of the Roman style”. European medieval vernacular tales, epics, and ballads generally dealt with chivalric adventure, not bringing in the concept of love until late into the seventeenth century. The word romance developed other meanings, such as the early nineteenth century Spanish and Italian definitions of “adventurous” and “passionate”, which could intimate both “love affair” and “idealistic quality”.^{[citation needed]}

Anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss show that there were complex forms of courtship in ancient as well as contemporary primitive societies. There may not be evidence, however, that members of such societies formed loving relationships distinct from their established customs in a way that would parallel modern romance.^[8] Marriages were often arranged, but the wishes of those to be wed were considered, as affection was important to primitive tribes.^[9]

In the majority of primitive societies studied by the anthropologists, the extramarital and premarital relations between men and women were completely free. The members of the temporary couples were sexually attracted to each other more than to anyone else, but in all other respects their relationships had not demonstrated the characteristics of romantic love. In the book of Boris Shipov Theory of Romantic Love^[10] the corresponding evidences of anthropologists have been collected. Lewis H. Morgan: “the passion of love was unknown among the barbarians. They are below the sentiment, which is the offspring of civilization and super added refinement of love was unknown among the barbarians.”^[11] Margaret Mead: “Romantic love as it occurs in our civilisation, inextricably bound up with ideas of monogamy, exclusiveness, jealousy and undeviating fidelity does not occur in Samoa.”^[12] Bronislaw Malinowski: “Though the social code does not favour romance, romantic elements and imaginative personal attachments are not altogether absent in Trobriand courtship and marriage.”^[13]

The phenomenon which B. Malinowski calls love, actually has very little in common with the European love: “Thus there is nothing roundabout in a Trobriand wooing; nor do they seek full personal relations, with sexual possession only as a consequence. Simply and directly a meeting is asked for with the avowed intention of sexual gratification. If the invitation is accepted, the satisfaction of the boy’s desire eliminates the romantic frame of mind, the craving for the unattainable and mysterious.”^[14] “an important point is that the pair’s community of interest is limited to the sexual relation only. The couple share a bed and nothing else. … there are no services to be mutually rendered, they have no obligation to help each other in any way…”^[15]

The aborigines of Mangaia island of Polynesia, who mastered the English language, used the word “love” with a completely different meaning as compared to that which is usual for the person brought up in the European culture. Donald S. Marshall: “Mangaian informants and co-workers were quite interested in the European concept of “love”. English-speaking Mangaians had previously used the term only in a physical sense of sexual desire; to say, “I love you” in English to another person was tantamount to saying, “I want to copulate with you.” The components of affection and companionship, which may characterize the European use of the term, puzzled the Mangaians when we discussed the term.”^[16] “The principal findings that one can draw from an analysis of emotional components of sexual relationship feelings on Mangaia are:

1. There is no cultural connection between a willingness to copulate with a person and any feeling of affection or liking or admiration between copulating partners.
2. The degree of “passion” between two individuals in sexual relationships is not related to an emotional involvement but to degrees of instruction in, and use of, sexual techniques.”^[17]

Nathaniel Branden claims that by virtue of “the tribal mentality,” “in primitive cultures the idea of romantic love did not exist at all. Passionate individual attachments are evidently seen as threatening to tribal values and tribal authority.”^[18] Dr. Audrey Richards, an anthropologist who lived among the Bemba of Northern Rhodesia in the 1930s, once related to a group of them an English folk-fable about a young prince who climbed glass mountains, crossed chasms, and fought dragons, all to obtain the hand of a maiden he loved. The Bemba were plainly bewildered, but remained silent. Finally an old chief spoke up, voicing the feelings of all present in the simplest of questions: “Why not take another girl?” he asked.^[19]

The earliest recorded marriages in Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, and among Hebrews were used to secure alliances and produce offspring. It was not until the Middle Ages that love began to be a real part of marriage.^[20] The marriages that did arise outside of arranged marriage were most often spontaneous relationships. In Ladies of the Leisure Class, Rutgers University professor Bonnie G. Smith depicts courtship and marriage rituals that may be viewed as oppressive to modern people. She writes, “When the young women of the Nord married, they did so without illusions of love and romance. They acted within a framework of concern for the reproduction of bloodlines according to financial, professional, and sometimes political interests.”^[21][22]

Anthony Giddens, in The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Society, states that romantic love introduced the idea of a narrative to an individual’s life, and telling a story is a root meaning of the term romance. According to Giddens, the rise of romantic love more or less coincided with the emergence of the novel. It was then that romantic love, associated with freedom and therefore the ideals of romantic love, created the ties between freedom and self-realization.^[23][24]

David R. Shumway states that “the discourse of intimacy” emerged in the last third of the 20th century, intended to explain how marriage and other relationships worked, and making the specific case that emotional closeness is much more important than passion, with intimacy and romance coexisting.^[25]

One example of the changes experienced in relationships in the early 21st century was explored by Giddens regarding homosexual relationships. According to Giddens, since homosexuals were not able to marry, they were forced to pioneer more open and negotiated relationships. These kinds of relationships then permeated the heterosexual population.^[26]

The origin of romantic love

Anthropologist and author Helen Fisher has argued that romantic love is a mammalian brain system evolved for selecting a preferred mating partner.^[27][28] Fisher’s team has proposed that romantic love may have evolved around the time of bipedalism, when new mothers needed additional protection and provision while having to carry their young.^[29] A 2023 paper by Adam Bode has argued that while Fisher’s evolutionary theory has been the predominant one for 25 years, romantic love could be better explained by evolutionary co-option of the systems for mother-infant bonding.^[30] Fisher likens romantic love to mammalian courtship attraction,^[31] but Bode argues courtship attraction is separate.^[30]

In F. Engels book, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State: “monogamy was the only known form of the family under which modern sex love could develop, it does not follow that this love developed, or even predominantly, within it as the mutual love of the spouses. The whole nature of strict monogamian marriage under male domination ruled this out.”^[32] Sigmund Freud stated, “It can easily be shown that the psychical value of erotic needs is reduced as soon as their satisfaction becomes easy. An obstacle is required in order to heighten libido; and where natural resistances to satisfaction have not been sufficient men have at all times erected conventional ones so as to be able to enjoy love. This is true both of individuals and of nations. In times in which there were no difficulties standing in the way of sexual satisfaction, such as perhaps during the decline of the ancient civilizations, love became worthless and life empty.”^[33]

Some believe that romantic love evolved independently in multiple cultures. For example, in an article presented by Henry Grunebaum, he argues “therapists mistakenly believe that romantic love is a phenomenon unique to Western cultures and first expressed by the troubadours of the Middle Ages.”^[34]

Popularization of the term “romance”

The word “romance” is derived from the Latin adverb Romanice, meaning “in the vernacular,” in reference to the languages Old French and Old Occitan. These languages were descendants of Latin, the language of the Romans. Evolutions of the word Romanice were used to refer first to the Romance languages and eventually also to the works composed in them. The genre of chivalric romance initially focused on the heroic military deeds of knights, which led to the use of the word romantic in the sense of chivalrous. As the genre evolved, starting after the Renaissance and especially in the Romantic period, it focused increasingly on love in the modern sense.^[35]

The general idea of “romantic love” in the Western tradition is believed^{[by whom?]} to have originated in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, primarily from that of the French culture. This idea is what has spurred the connection between the words “romantic” and “lover”, thus coining English phrases for romantic love such as “loving like the Romans do”. The precise origins of such a connection are unknown, however. Although the word “romance” or the equivalents thereof may not have the same connotation in other cultures, the general idea of “romantic love” appears to have crossed cultures and been accepted as a concept at one point in time or another.^{[citation needed]}

Courtly love

Main article: Courtly love

The conception of romantic love was popularized in Western culture by the concept of courtly love. Knights of the Middle Ages were thought to have engaged in non-sexual relationships with women of nobility whom they served.^[36] These relations were highly elaborate and ritualized in a complexity that was steeped in a framework of tradition, which stemmed from theories of etiquette derived out of chivalry as a moral code of conduct.^{[citation needed]}

Courtly love and the notion of domnei were often the subjects of troubadours, and could be typically found in artistic endeavors such as lyrical narratives and poetic prose of the time. Since marriage was commonly a formal arrangement,^{[37][better source needed]} courtly love sometimes permitted expressions of emotional closeness that may have been lacking from the union between husband and wife.^[38] Courtly love did not necessarily refer to those engaging in sexual acts. It may also have referred to caring and emotional intimacy. The bond between a knight and his Lady, or the woman of typically high stature of whom he served, may in some cases have been one such example.^[36][39]

Religious meditations upon the Virgin Mary were partially responsible for the development of chivalry as an ethic and lifestyle. A lady’s honor and a knight’s devotion to her, coupled with an obligatory respect for all women, factored prominently in the identity of medieval knighthood. Members of the aristocracy were schooled in the principles of chivalry, which facilitated important changes in attitudes regarding the value of women.^[40]

Modern historians such as D. W. Robertson Jr.,^[41] John C. Moore,^[42] and E. Talbot Donaldson^[43] consider the concept of courtly love to be a modern invention. Donaldson called it “The Myth of Courtly Love,” on the basis that it is not supported in medieval texts. Other scholars consider courtly love to have been purely a literary convention. Examples of allegorical use of the concept can be found in the Middle Ages, but there are no historical records that offer evidence of its presence in reality. Historian John Benton found no documentary evidence in law codes, court cases, chronicles or other historical documents.^[44][45]

Types

Romantic love is contrasted with platonic love, which in all usages precludes sexual relations,^{[contradictory]} yet only in the modern usage does it take on a fully nonsexual sense, rather than the classical sense, in which sexual drives are sublimated.

Unrequited love can be romantic in different ways: comic, tragic, or in the sense that sublimation itself is comparable to romance, where the spirituality of both art and egalitarian ideals is combined with strong character and emotions. Unrequited love is typical of the period of romanticism, but the term is distinct from any romance that might arise within it.^[46]

Romantic love may also be classified according to two categories, “popular romance” and “divine or spiritual” romance:Popular romancePopular romance may include, but is not limited to the following types: idealistic, normal intense (such as the emotional aspect of “falling in love“), predictable as well as unpredictable, consuming (meaning consuming of time, energy and emotional withdrawals and bids), intense but out of control (such as the aspect of “falling out of love”) material and commercial (such as societal gain mentioned in a later section of this article), physical and sexual, and finally grand and demonstrative.Divine (or spiritual) romanceDivine (spiritual) romance may include, but is not limited to these following types: realistic, as well as plausible unrealistic, optimistic as well as pessimistic (depending upon the particular beliefs held by each person within the relationship.), abiding (e.g. the theory that each person had a predetermined stance as an agent of choice; such as “choosing a husband” or “choosing a soul mate”.), non-abiding (e.g. the theory that each person do not choose their actions, and therefore their romantic love involvement has been drawn from sources outside of themselves), predictable as well as unpredictable, self-control (such as obedience and sacrifice within the context of the relationship) or lack thereof (such as disobedience within the context of the relationship), emotional and personal, soulful (in the theory that the mind, soul, and body, are one connected entity), intimate, and infinite (such as the idea that love itself or the love of a God’s “unconditional” love is or could be everlasting).^[47]

Philosophy

Plato

Greek philosophers and authors have had many theories of love. Some of these theories are presented in Plato‘s Symposium. Six Athenian friends, including Socrates, drink wine and each give a speech praising the deity Eros. When his turn comes, Aristophanes says in his mythical speech that sexual partners seek each other because they are descended from beings with spherical torsos, two sets of human limbs, genitalia on each side, and two faces back to back. Their three forms included the three permutations of pairs of gender (i.e. one masculine and masculine, another feminine and feminine, and the third masculine and feminine) and they were split by the gods to thwart the creatures’ assault on heaven, recapitulated, according to the comic playwright, in other myths such as the Aloadae.^[48]

This story is relevant to modern romance partly because of the image of reciprocity it shows between the sexes. In the final speech before Alcibiades arrives, Socrates gives his encomium of love and desire as a lack of being, namely, the being or form of beauty.

René Girard

Though there are many theories of romantic love—such as that of Robert Sternberg, in which it is merely a mean combining liking and sexual desire—the major theories involve far more insight. For most of the 20th century, Freud’s theory of the family drama dominated theories of romance and sexual relationships. This gave rise to a few counter-theories. Theorists like Deleuze counter Freud and Jacques Lacan by attempting to return to a more naturalistic philosophy:

René Girard argues that romantic attraction is a product of jealousy and rivalry—particularly in a triangular form.

Girard, in any case, downplays romance’s individuality in favor of jealousy and the love triangle, arguing that romantic attraction arises primarily in the observed attraction between two others. A natural objection is that this is circular reasoning, but Girard means that a small measure of attraction reaches a critical point insofar as it is caught up in mimesis. Shakespeare’s plays A Midsummer Night’s Dream, As You Like It, and The Winter’s Tale are the best known examples of competitive-induced romance.^[49]

Girard’s theory of mimetic desire is controversial because of its alleged sexism. This view has to some extent supplanted its predecessor, Freudian Oedipal theory. It may find some spurious support in the supposed attraction of women to aggressive men. As a technique of attraction, often combined with irony, it is sometimes advised that one feign toughness and disinterest, but it can be a trivial or crude idea to promulgate to men, and it is not given with much understanding of mimetic desire in mind. Instead, cultivating a spirit of self-sacrifice, coupled with an attitude of appreciation or contemplation, directed towards the other of one’s attractions, constitutes the ideals of what we consider to be true romantic love. Mimesis is always the desire to possess, in renouncing it we offer ourselves as a sacrificial gift to the other.^[50]

Mimetic desire is often challenged by feminists, such as Toril Moi,^[51] who argue that it does not account for the woman as inherently desired.

Though the centrality of rivalry is not itself a cynical view, it does emphasize the mechanical in love relations. In that sense, it does resonate with capitalism and cynicism native to post-modernity. Romance in this context leans more on fashion and irony, though these were important for it in less emancipated times. Sexual revolutions have brought change to these areas. Wit or irony therefore encompass an instability of romance that is not entirely new but has a more central social role, fine-tuned to certain modern peculiarities and subversion originating in various social revolutions, culminating mostly in the 1960s.^[52]

Arthur Schopenhauer

The process of courtship also contributed to Arthur Schopenhauer‘s pessimism, despite his own romantic success,^[53] and he argued that to be rid of the challenge of courtship would drive people to suicide with boredom. Schopenhauer theorized that individuals seek partners looking for a “complement” or completing of themselves in a partner, as in the cliché that “opposites attract”, but with the added consideration that both partners manifest this attraction for the sake of the species:

But what ultimately draws two individuals of different sex exclusively to each other with such power is the will-to-live which manifests itself in the whole species, and here anticipates, in the individual that these two can produce, an objectification of its true nature corresponding to its aims. —World as Will and Representation, Volume 2, Chapter XLIV^[54]

Other philosophers

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Later modern philosophers such as La Rochefoucauld, David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau also focused on morality, but desire was central to French thought and Hume himself tended to adopt a French worldview and temperament. Desire in this milieu meant a very general idea termed “the passions”, and this general interest was distinct from the contemporary idea of “passionate” now equated with “romantic”. Love was a central topic again in the subsequent movement of Romanticism, which focused on such things as absorption in nature and the absolute, as well as platonic and unrequited love in German philosophy and literature.

French philosopher Gilles Deleuze linked this concept of love as a lack mainly to Sigmund Freud, and Deleuze often criticized it.

American views of romantic love

Victor C. De Munck and David B. Kronenfeld conducted a study named “Romantic Love in the United States: Applying Cultural Models Theory and Methods”.^[55] This study was conducted through an investigation of two cultural model cases. It states that in America, “we have a rather novel and dynamic cultural model that is falsifiable and predictive of successful love relationships” Which supports that it is popular for American people to successfully share feelings of romanticism with each other’s partners. It describes American culture by stating: “The model is unique in that it combines passion with comfort and friendship as properties of romantic love.” One of its main contributions is advising the reader that “For successful romantic love relations, a person would feel excited about meeting their beloved; make passionate and intimate love as opposed to only physical love; feel comfortable with the beloved, behaving in a companionable, friendly way with one’s partner; listen to the other’s concerns, offering to help out in various ways if necessary; and, all the while, keeping a mental ledger of the degree to which altruism and passion are mutual.”

Literature

Further information: Romance novel

Archetypal lovers in Romeo and Juliet by Frank Dicksee, 1884. The play ranks with Hamlet as one of Shakespeare’s most popular plays. It legacy can be seen on its many adaptations in ballet, music and cinema.

Cover of Zhuchun yuan (The Garden of Spring Residence) written by Wuhang Yeke, an 18th-century Chinese caizi jiaren (“scholar and beauty”) romantic novel, a representative type of romantic fiction.^[56][57][58]

Shakespeare and Søren Kierkegaard share a similar viewpoint that marriage and romance are not harmoniously in tune with each other. In Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, for example, “…there has not been, nor is there at this point, any display of affection between Isabella and the Duke, if by affection we mean something concerned with sexual attraction. The two at the end of the play love each other as they love virtue.”^[59] In Romeo and Juliet, in saying “all combined, save what thou must combine By holy marriage”, Romeo implies that it is not marriage with Juliet that he seeks but simply to be joined with her romantically.

Kierkegaard addressed these ideas in works such as Either/Or and Stages on Life’s Way:

In the first place, I find it comical that all men are in love and want to be in love, and yet one never can get any illumination upon the question what the lovable, i.e., the proper object of love, really is.^[60]

In his 2008 book How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, British writer Iain King tried to establish rules for romance applicable across most cultures. He concluded on six rules, including:

1. Do not flirt with someone unless you mean it.
2. Do not pursue people who you are not interested in, or who are not interested in you.
3. In general, express your affection or uncertainty clearly, unless there is a special reason not to.^[61]

Psychology

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia’s quality standards. The specific problem is: Very awkward prose. No indication why the cited authors are significant. Please help improve this article if you can. (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Many theorists attempt to analyze the process of romantic love.^{[62][63][64][65]}

Anthropologist Helen Fisher, in her book Why We Love,^[66] uses brain scans to show that love is the product of a chemical reaction in the brain. Norepinephrine and dopamine, among other brain chemicals, are responsible for excitement and bliss in humans as well as non-human animals. Fisher uses MRI to study the brain activity of a person “in love” and she concludes that love is a natural drive as powerful as hunger.

Psychologist Karen Horney in her article “The Problem of the Monogamous Ideal”,^[67] indicates that the overestimation of love leads to disillusionment; the desire to possess the partner results in the partner wanting to escape; and the friction against sex result in non-fulfillment. Disillusionment plus the desire to escape plus non-fulfillment result in a secret hostility, which causes the other partner to feel alienated. Secret hostility in one and secret alienation in the other cause the partners to secretly hate each other. This secret hate often leads one or the other or both to seek love objects outside the marriage or relationship.

Psychologist Harold Bessell in his book The Love Test,^[68] reconciles the opposing forces noted by the above researchers and shows that there are two factors that determine the quality of a relationship. Bessell proposes that people are drawn together by a force he calls “romantic attraction”, which is a combination of genetic and cultural factors. This force may be weak or strong and may be felt to different degrees by each of the two love partners. The other factor is “emotional maturity”, which is the degree to which a person is capable of providing good treatment in a love relationship. It can thus be said that an immature person is more likely to overestimate love, become disillusioned, and have an affair whereas a mature person is more likely to see the relationship in realistic terms and act constructively to work out problems.

Romantic love, in the abstract sense of the term, is traditionally considered to involve a mix of emotional and sexual desire for another as a person. However, Lisa M. Diamond, a University of Utah psychology professor, proposes that sexual desire and romantic love are functionally independent^[69] and that romantic love is not intrinsically oriented to same-gender or other-gender partners. She also proposes that the links between love and desire are bidirectional as opposed to unilateral. Furthermore, Diamond does not state that one’s sex has priority over another sex (a male or female) in romantic love because her theory suggests^{[according to whom?]} it is as possible for someone who is homosexual to fall in love with someone of the other gender as for someone who is heterosexual to fall in love with someone of the same gender.^[70] In her 2012 review of this topic, Diamond emphasized that what is true for men may not be true for women. According to Diamond, in most men sexual orientation is fixed and most likely innate, but in many women sexual orientation may vary from 0 to 6 on the Kinsey scale and back again.^[71]

Martie Haselton, a psychologist at UCLA, considers romantic love a “commitment device” or mechanism that encourages two humans to form a lasting bond. She has explored the evolutionary rationale that has shaped modern romantic love and has concluded that long-lasting relationships are helpful to ensure that children reach reproductive age and are fed and cared for by two parents. Haselton and her colleagues have found evidence in their experiments that suggest love’s adaptation. The first part of the experiments consists of having people think about how much they love someone and then suppress thoughts of other attractive people. In the second part of the experiment the same people are asked to think about how much they sexually desire those same partners and then try to suppress thoughts about others. The results showed that love is more efficient in pushing out those rivals than sex.^[72]

Research by the University of Pavia^[who?] suggests that romantic love lasts for about a year (similar to limerence) before being replaced by a more stable, non-passionate “companionate love“.^[73] In companionate love, changes occur from the early stage of love to when the relationship becomes more established and romantic feelings seem to end. However, research from Stony Brook University in New York suggests that some couples keep romantic feelings alive for much longer.^[74]

Attachment patterns

Attachment styles that people develop as children can influence the way that they interact with partners in adult relationships, with secure attachment styles being associated with healthier and more trusting relationships than avoidant or anxious attachment styles.^[75][76] Hazen and Shaver found that adult romantic attachment styles were similar to the categories of secure, avoidant, and anxious that had previously been studied in children’s attachments to their caregivers, demonstrating that attachment styles are stable across the lifespan.^[77] Later on, researchers distinguished between dismissive avoidant attachment and fearful avoidant attachment.^[78] Others have found that secure adult attachment, leading to the ability for intimacy and confidence in relationship stability, is characterized by low attachment-related anxiety and avoidance, while the fearful style is high on both dimensions, the dismissing style is low on anxiety and high on avoidance, and the preoccupied style is high on anxiety and low on avoidance.^[79]

Romantic love definition/operationalization

Irving Singer first defined love based on four Greek terms: eros, meaning the search for beauty; philia, the feelings of affection in close friendships, nomos, the submission of and obedience to higher or divine powers, and agape, the bestowal of love and affection for the divine powers.^[80][81][82] While Singer did believe that love was important to world culture, he did not believe that romantic love played a major role.^[82] However, Susan Hendrick and Clyde Hendrick at Texas Tech University have theorized that romantic love will play an increasingly important cultural role in the future, as it is considered an important part of living a fulfilling life.^[83][84] They also theorized that love in long-term romantic relationships has only been the product of cultural forces that came to fruition within the past 300 years. By cultural forces, they mean the increasing prevalence of individualistic ideologies, which are the result of an inward shift of many cultural worldviews.

Passionate and companionate love

Main article: Passionate and companionate love

Researchers have determined that romantic love is a complex emotion that can be divided into either passionate or companionate forms.^[85] Berscheid and Walster ^[86] and Hatfield^[87] found that these two forms can co-exist, either simultaneously or intermittently. Passionate love is an arousal-driven emotion that often gives people extreme feelings of happiness, and can also give people feelings of anguish.^{[citation needed]} Companionate love is a form that creates a steadfast bond between two people, and gives people feelings of peace. Researchers have described the stage of passionate love as “being on cocaine”, since during that stage the brain releases the same neurotransmitter, dopamine, as when cocaine is being used.^[88] It is also estimated that passionate love (as with limerence) lasts for about twelve to eighteen months.^[89]

Hendrick and Hendrick studied college students who were in the early stages of a relationship and found that almost half reported that their significant other was their closest friend, providing evidence that both passionate and companionate love exist in new relationships.^[90] Conversely, in a study of long-term marriages, Contreras, Hendrick, and Hendrick found that couples endorsed measures of both companionate love and passionate love and that passionate love was the strongest predictor of marital satisfaction, showing that both types of love can endure throughout the years.^[91]

The triangular theory of love

Psychologist Robert Sternberg^[92] developed the triangular theory of love. He theorized that love is a combination of three main components: passion (physical arousal); intimacy (psychological feelings of closeness); and commitment (the sustaining of a relationship). He also theorized that the different combinations of these three components could yield up to seven different forms of love. These include popularized forms such as romantic love (intimacy and passion) and consummate love (passion, intimacy, and commitment). The other forms are liking (intimacy), companionate love (intimacy and commitment), empty love (commitment), fatuous love (passion and commitment), and infatuation (passion). Studies on Sternberg’s theory of love found that intimacy most strongly predicted marital satisfaction in married couples, with passion also being an important predictor (Silberman, 1995.^[93] On the other hand, Acker and Davis^[94] found that commitment was the strongest predictor of relationship satisfaction, especially for long-term relationships.

The self-expansion theory of romantic love

Researchers Arthur and Elaine Aron theorized that humans have a basic drive to expand their self-concepts. Further, their experience with Eastern concepts of love caused them to believe that positive emotions, cognitions, and relationships in romantic behaviors all drive the expansion of a person’s self-concept.^[95] A study following college students for 10 weeks showed that those students who fell in love over the course of the investigation reported higher feelings of self-esteem and self-efficacy than those who did not.^[96]

Mindful relationships

Gottman studies the components of a flourishing romantic relationship have been studied in the lab ^[97] Gottman & Silver, 1999.^[98] He used physiological and behavioral measures during couples’ interactions to predict relationship success and found that five positive interactions to one negative interaction are needed to maintain a healthy relationship. He established a therapy intervention for couples that focused on civil forms of disapproval, a culture of appreciation, acceptance of responsibility for problems, and self-soothing.^[99]

Relationship behaviors

Recent research suggests that romantic relationships impact daily behaviors and people are influenced by the eating habits of their romantic partners. Specifically, in the early stages of romantic relationships, women are more likely to be influenced by the eating patterns (i.e., healthiness/unhealthiness) of men. However, when romantic relationships are established, men are influenced by the eating patterns of women.^[100]

Relationship maintenance

Daniel Canary from the International Encyclopedia of Marriage^[101] describes relationship maintenance as “At the most basic level, relational maintenance refers to a variety of behaviors used by partners in an effort to stay together.” Maintaining stability and quality in a relationship is the key to success in a romantic relationship. He says that: “simply staying together is not sufficient; instead, the quality of the relationship is important. For researchers, this means examining behaviors that are linked to relational satisfaction and other indicators of quality.” Canary suggests using the work of John Gottman, an American physiologist best known for his research on marital stability for over four decades, serves as a guide for predicting outcomes in relationships because “Gottman emphasizes behaviors that determine whether or not a couple gets divorced”.^[102]

Furthermore, Canary also uses the source from Stafford and Canary,^[103] a journal on Communication Monographs, because they created five great strategies based on maintaining quality in a relationship, the article’s strategies are to provide:

• Positivity: being joyful and optimistic, not criticizing each other.
• Assurances: proving one’s commitment and love.
• Openness: to be honest with one another according to what they want in the relationship.
• Social networks: efforts into involving friends and family in their activities.
• Sharing tasks: complementing each other’s needs based on daily work.

On relational maintenance, Steven McCornack and Joseph Ortiz, the authors of the book Choices & Connection, state that relationship maintenance “refers to the use of communication behaviors to keep a relationship strong and to ensure that each party continues to draw satisfaction from the relationship”.^[104]

Physiology

Researchers such as Feeney and Noller question the stability of attachment style across the life span since studies that measured attachment styles at time points ranging from two weeks to eight months found that one out of four adults’ attachment style changed.^[105] Furthermore, a study by Lopez and Gormley found that attachment styles could change during the first year of college and that changes to more secure attachment styles were associated with adjustments in self-confidence ratings and coping styles.^[106] On the other hand, attachment styles in childhood mirror the ones found in adult romantic relationships.^[107] In addition, research has shown that building interpersonal connections strengthens neural regulatory systems that are involved in emotions of empathy, enjoyment of positive social events, and stress management,^[108][109] providing evidence that early social interactions affect adult relationships.

Another topic of controversy in the field of romantic relationships is that of domestic abuse. Following the theory that romantic love evolved as a byproduct of survival, it can be said that in some instances, it has turned into a maladaptation. Oxytocin (OT) is a neurophysical hormone produced in the brain. It is known to cause a decrease in stress response. It also can cause an increase in feelings of attachment. In the beginning stages of a romantic relationship, OT levels surge and then remain relatively stable over the duration of the relationship. The higher the surge of OT, the greater the likelihood is of partners staying together.^[110] It plays an important role in increasing positive interpersonal behaviors such as trust, altruism, empathy, etc.^[111] This response is not universal and can in fact, cause the opposite to occur depending on environment and individual. Individuals ranked high in rejection sensitivity exhibited aggressive tendencies and decreased willingness for cooperation, indicating a link between oxytocin and relationship maintenance.^[112]

The feelings associated with romantic love function to ensure the greater reproductive fitness of individuals. The obligations of individuals in romantic relationships to preserve these bonds are based in kin selection theory, where by exhibiting aggressive behavior, a mate can use intimidation and dominance to ward off other potential predators, thus protecting the pair bond and their actual or potential offspring. This has however evolved to the point where it has become detrimental to the fitness of individuals; what is causing attachment to occur in a relationship, is now causing one partner to harm the other.

In the search for the root of intimate partner violence (IPV), intranasal oxytocin was administered to a control group and a group of participants with aggressive tendencies. Participants were then surveyed on how willing they were to engage in five behaviors towards their romantic partner. What they found was that oxytocin increased IPV inclinations only among the participants with a predisposition towards aggressive tendencies.^[113]

What the Hell is going on down at the Planck level? It’s within you – all over you – outside of you. No wonder we can’t make a decision.

In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string acts like a particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries the gravitational force. Thus, string theory is a theory of quantum gravity.

String theory is a broad and varied subject that attempts to address a number of deep questions of fundamental physics. String theory has contributed a number of advances to mathematical physics, which have been applied to a variety of problems in black hole physics, early universe cosmology, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics, and it has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Because string theory potentially provides a unified description of gravity and particle physics, it is a candidate for a theory of everything, a self-contained mathematical model that describes all fundamental forces and forms of matter. Despite much work on these problems, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of its details.

String theory was first studied in the late 1960s as a theory of the strong nuclear force, before being abandoned in favor of quantum chromodynamics. Subsequently, it was realized that the very properties that made string theory unsuitable as a theory of nuclear physics made it a promising candidate for a quantum theory of gravity. The earliest version of string theory, bosonic string theory, incorporated only the class of particles known as bosons. It later developed into superstring theory, which posits a connection called supersymmetry between bosons and the class of particles called fermions. Five consistent versions of superstring theory were developed before it was conjectured in the mid-1990s that they were all different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven dimensions known as M-theory. In late 1997, theorists discovered an important relationship called the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence (AdS/CFT correspondence), which relates string theory to another type of physical theory called a quantum field theory.

One of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. Another issue is that the theory is thought to describe an enormous landscape of possible universes, which has complicated efforts to develop theories of particle physics based on string theory. These issues have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to physics, and to question the value of continued research on string theory unification.

Fundamentals

Overview

In the 20th century, two theoretical frameworks emerged for formulating the laws of physics. The first is Albert Einstein‘s general theory of relativity, a theory that explains the force of gravity and the structure of spacetime at the macro-level. The other is quantum mechanics, a completely different formulation, which uses known probability principles to describe physical phenomena at the micro-level. By the late 1970s, these two frameworks had proven to be sufficient to explain most of the observed features of the universe, from elementary particles to atoms to the evolution of stars and the universe as a whole.^[1]

In spite of these successes, there are still many problems that remain to be solved. One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity.^[1] The general theory of relativity is formulated within the framework of classical physics, whereas the other fundamental forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics. A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics, but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity.^[2]

String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to address these questions.

The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of particle physics can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other. In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle consistent with non-string models of elementary particles, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. String theory’s application as a form of quantum gravity proposes a vibrational state responsible for the graviton, a yet unproven quantum particle that is theorized to carry gravitational force.^[3]

One of the main developments of the past several decades in string theory was the discovery of certain ‘dualities’, mathematical transformations that identify one physical theory with another. Physicists studying string theory have discovered a number of these dualities between different versions of string theory, and this has led to the conjecture that all consistent versions of string theory are subsumed in a single framework known as M-theory.^[4]

Studies of string theory have also yielded a number of results on the nature of black holes and the gravitational interaction. There are certain paradoxes that arise when one attempts to understand the quantum aspects of black holes, and work on string theory has attempted to clarify these issues. In late 1997 this line of work culminated in the discovery of the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence or AdS/CFT.^[5] This is a theoretical result that relates string theory to other physical theories which are better understood theoretically. The AdS/CFT correspondence has implications for the study of black holes and quantum gravity, and it has been applied to other subjects, including nuclear^[6] and condensed matter physics.^[7][8]

Since string theory incorporates all of the fundamental interactions, including gravity, many physicists hope that it will eventually be developed to the point where it fully describes our universe, making it a theory of everything. One of the goals of current research in string theory is to find a solution of the theory that reproduces the observed spectrum of elementary particles, with a small cosmological constant, containing dark matter and a plausible mechanism for cosmic inflation. While there has been progress toward these goals, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of details.^[9]

One of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. The scattering of strings is most straightforwardly defined using the techniques of perturbation theory, but it is not known in general how to define string theory nonperturbatively.^[10] It is also not clear whether there is any principle by which string theory selects its vacuum state, the physical state that determines the properties of our universe.^[11] These problems have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to the unification of physics and question the value of continued research on these problems.^[12]

Strings

Main article: String (physics)

The application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field, which are extended in space and time, is known as quantum field theory. In particle physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields.^[13]

In quantum field theory, one typically computes the probabilities of various physical events using the techniques of perturbation theory. Developed by Richard Feynman and others in the first half of the twentieth century, perturbative quantum field theory uses special diagrams called Feynman diagrams to organize computations. One imagines that these diagrams depict the paths of point-like particles and their interactions.^[13]

The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of quantum field theory can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings.^[14] The interaction of strings is most straightforwardly defined by generalizing the perturbation theory used in ordinary quantum field theory. At the level of Feynman diagrams, this means replacing the one-dimensional diagram representing the path of a point particle by a two-dimensional (2D) surface representing the motion of a string.^[15] Unlike in quantum field theory, string theory does not have a full non-perturbative definition, so many of the theoretical questions that physicists would like to answer remain out of reach.^[16]

In theories of particle physics based on string theory, the characteristic length scale of strings is assumed to be on the order of the Planck length, or 10⁻³⁵ meters, the scale at which the effects of quantum gravity are believed to become significant.^[15] On much larger length scales, such as the scales visible in physics laboratories, such objects would be indistinguishable from zero-dimensional point particles, and the vibrational state of the string would determine the type of particle. One of the vibrational states of a string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries the gravitational force.^[3]

The original version of string theory was bosonic string theory, but this version described only bosons, a class of particles that transmit forces between the matter particles, or fermions. Bosonic string theory was eventually superseded by theories called superstring theories. These theories describe both bosons and fermions, and they incorporate a theoretical idea called supersymmetry. In theories with supersymmetry, each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion, and vice versa.^[17]

There are several versions of superstring theory: type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two flavors of heterotic string theory (SO(32) and E₈×E₈). The different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries. For example, the type I theory includes both open strings (which are segments with endpoints) and closed strings (which form closed loops), while types IIA, IIB and heterotic include only closed strings.^[18]

Extra dimensions

In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions (3D) of space: height, width and length. Einstein’s general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional (4D) spacetime. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.^[19]

In spite of the fact that the Universe is well described by 4D spacetime, there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions. In some cases, by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions, a theory becomes more mathematically tractable, and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily.^[a] There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics.^[13] Finally, there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than 4D of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection.^[20]

String theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency. In bosonic string theory, spacetime is 26-dimensional, while in superstring theory it is 10-dimensional, and in M-theory it is 11-dimensional. In order to describe real physical phenomena using string theory, one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments.^[21]

Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to “close up” on themselves to form circles.^[22] In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions. A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions.

Compactification can be used to construct models in which spacetime is effectively four-dimensional. However, not every way of compactifying the extra dimensions produces a model with the right properties to describe nature. In a viable model of particle physics, the compact extra dimensions must be shaped like a Calabi–Yau manifold.^[22] A Calabi–Yau manifold is a special space which is typically taken to be six-dimensional in applications to string theory. It is named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau.^[23]

Another approach to reducing the number of dimensions is the so-called brane-world scenario. In this approach, physicists assume that the observable universe is a four-dimensional subspace of a higher dimensional space. In such models, the force-carrying bosons of particle physics arise from open strings with endpoints attached to the four-dimensional subspace, while gravity arises from closed strings propagating through the larger ambient space. This idea plays an important role in attempts to develop models of real-world physics based on string theory, and it provides a natural explanation for the weakness of gravity compared to the other fundamental forces.^[24]

Dualities

Main articles: S-duality and T-duality

A notable fact about string theory is that the different versions of the theory all turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways. One of the relationships that can exist between different string theories is called S-duality. This is a relationship that says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can, in some cases, be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory. Roughly speaking, a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently. Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S-duality to the SO(32) heterotic string theory. Similarly, type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S-duality.^[25]

Another relationship between different string theories is T-duality. Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension. T-duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius R is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius 1/R in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description. For example, a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle, and it can also wind around the circle one or more times. The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number. If a string has momentum p and winding number n in one description, it will have momentum n and winding number p in the dual description. For example, type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T-duality, and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T-duality.^[25]

In general, the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way. Two theories related by a duality need not be string theories. For example, Montonen–Olive duality is an example of an S-duality relationship between quantum field theories. The AdS/CFT correspondence is an example of a duality that relates string theory to a quantum field theory. If two theories are related by a duality, it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory. The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under the transformation. Put differently, the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena.^[26]

Branes

Main article: Brane

In string theory and other related theories, a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions. For instance, a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero, while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one. It is also possible to consider higher-dimensional branes. In dimension p, these are called p-branes. The word brane comes from the word “membrane” which refers to a two-dimensional brane.^[27]

Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics. They have mass and can have other attributes such as charge. A p-brane sweeps out a (p+1)-dimensional volume in spacetime called its worldvolume. Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane.^[27]

In string theory, D-branes are an important class of branes that arise when one considers open strings. As an open string propagates through spacetime, its endpoints are required to lie on a D-brane. The letter “D” in D-brane refers to a certain mathematical condition on the system known as the Dirichlet boundary condition. The study of D-branes in string theory has led to important results such as the AdS/CFT correspondence, which has shed light on many problems in quantum field theory.^[27]

Branes are frequently studied from a purely mathematical point of view, and they are described as objects of certain categories, such as the derived category of coherent sheaves on a complex algebraic variety, or the Fukaya category of a symplectic manifold.^[28] The connection between the physical notion of a brane and the mathematical notion of a category has led to important mathematical insights in the fields of algebraic and symplectic geometry^[29] and representation theory.^[30]

M-theory

Main article: M-theory

Prior to 1995, theorists believed that there were five consistent versions of superstring theory (type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two versions of heterotic string theory). This understanding changed in 1995 when Edward Witten suggested that the five theories were just special limiting cases of an eleven-dimensional theory called M-theory. Witten’s conjecture was based on the work of a number of other physicists, including Ashoke Sen, Chris Hull, Paul Townsend, and Michael Duff. His announcement led to a flurry of research activity now known as the second superstring revolution.^[31]

Unification of superstring theories

In the 1970s, many physicists became interested in supergravity theories, which combine general relativity with supersymmetry. Whereas general relativity makes sense in any number of dimensions, supergravity places an upper limit on the number of dimensions.^[32] In 1978, work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven.^[33] In the same year, Eugene Cremmer, Bernard Julia, and Joël Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions.^[34][35]

Initially, many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven-dimensional supergravity, it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four-dimensional world. The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and gravity. Interest in eleven-dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered. One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise, a phenomenon known as chirality. Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions.^[35]

In the first superstring revolution in 1984, many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity. Unlike supergravity theory, string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model, and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects.^[35] Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness. In ordinary particle theories, one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian. In string theory, the possibilities are much more constrained: by the 1990s, physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory.^[35]

Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories, it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation.^[35] However, as physicists began to examine string theory more closely, they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways. They found that a system of strongly interacting strings can, in some cases, be viewed as a system of weakly interacting strings. This phenomenon is known as S-duality. It was studied by Ashoke Sen in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions^[36][37] and by Chris Hull and Paul Townsend in the context of the type IIB theory.^[38] Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T-duality. This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent.^[39]

At around the same time, as many physicists were studying the properties of strings, a small group of physicists were examining the possible applications of higher dimensional objects. In 1987, Eric Bergshoeff, Ergin Sezgin, and Paul Townsend showed that eleven-dimensional supergravity includes two-dimensional branes.^[40] Intuitively, these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven-dimensional spacetime. Shortly after this discovery, Michael Duff, Paul Howe, Takeo Inami, and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven-dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle.^[41] In this setting, one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension. If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small, then this membrane looks just like a string in ten-dimensional spacetime. Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory.^[42]

Speaking at a string theory conference in 1995, Edward Witten made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions. Witten’s announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T-duality and the appearance of higher-dimensional branes in string theory.^[43] In the months following Witten’s announcement, hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming different parts of his proposal.^[44] Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution.^[45]

Initially, some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes, but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory. In a paper from 1996, Hořava and Witten wrote “As it has been proposed that the eleven-dimensional theory is a supermembrane theory but there are some reasons to doubt that interpretation, we will non-committally call it the M-theory, leaving to the future the relation of M to membranes.”^[46] In the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M-theory, Witten has suggested that the M should stand for “magic”, “mystery”, or “membrane” according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known.^[47]

Matrix theory

Main article: Matrix theory (physics)

In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data. In physics, a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way. A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics.^[48]

One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker, and Leonard Susskind in 1997. This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices. In their original paper, these authors showed, among other things, that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven-dimensional supergravity. These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M-theory. The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M-theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M-theory in a relatively simple setting.^[48]

The development of the matrix model formulation of M-theory has led physicists to consider various connections between string theory and a branch of mathematics called noncommutative geometry. This subject is a generalization of ordinary geometry in which mathematicians define new geometric notions using tools from noncommutative algebra.^[49] In a paper from 1998, Alain Connes, Michael R. Douglas, and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M-theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory, a special kind of physical theory in which spacetime is described mathematically using noncommutative geometry.^[50] This established a link between matrix models and M-theory on the one hand, and noncommutative geometry on the other hand. It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories.^[51][52]

Black holes

In general relativity, a black hole is defined as a region of spacetime in which the gravitational field is so strong that no particle or radiation can escape. In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, black holes are thought to arise when massive stars undergo gravitational collapse, and many galaxies are thought to contain supermassive black holes at their centers. Black holes are also important for theoretical reasons, as they present profound challenges for theorists attempting to understand the quantum aspects of gravity. String theory has proved to be an important tool for investigating the theoretical properties of black holes because it provides a framework in which theorists can study their thermodynamics.^[53]

Bekenstein–Hawking formula

In the branch of physics called statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a physical system. This concept was studied in the 1870s by the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who showed that the thermodynamic properties of a gas could be derived from the combined properties of its many constituent molecules. Boltzmann argued that by averaging the behaviors of all the different molecules in a gas, one can understand macroscopic properties such as volume, temperature, and pressure. In addition, this perspective led him to give a precise definition of entropy as the natural logarithm of the number of different states of the molecules (also called microstates) that give rise to the same macroscopic features.^[54]

In the twentieth century, physicists began to apply the same concepts to black holes. In most systems such as gases, the entropy scales with the volume. In the 1970s, the physicist Jacob Bekenstein suggested that the entropy of a black hole is instead proportional to the surface area of its event horizon, the boundary beyond which matter and radiation may escape its gravitational attraction.^[55] When combined with ideas of the physicist Stephen Hawking,^[56] Bekenstein’s work yielded a precise formula for the entropy of a black hole. The Bekenstein–Hawking formula expresses the entropy S asS=c3kA4ℏG

where c is the speed of light, k is the Boltzmann constant, ħ is the reduced Planck constant, G is Newton’s constant, and A is the surface area of the event horizon.^[57]

Like any physical system, a black hole has an entropy defined in terms of the number of different microstates that lead to the same macroscopic features. The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy formula gives the expected value of the entropy of a black hole, but by the 1990s, physicists still lacked a derivation of this formula by counting microstates in a theory of quantum gravity. Finding such a derivation of this formula was considered an important test of the viability of any theory of quantum gravity such as string theory.^[58]

Derivation within string theory

In a paper from 1996, Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa showed how to derive the Bekenstein–Hawking formula for certain black holes in string theory.^[59] Their calculation was based on the observation that D-branes—which look like fluctuating membranes when they are weakly interacting—become dense, massive objects with event horizons when the interactions are strong. In other words, a system of strongly interacting D-branes in string theory is indistinguishable from a black hole. Strominger and Vafa analyzed such D-brane systems and calculated the number of different ways of placing D-branes in spacetime so that their combined mass and charge is equal to a given mass and charge for the resulting black hole. Their calculation reproduced the Bekenstein–Hawking formula exactly, including the factor of 1/4.^[60] Subsequent work by Strominger, Vafa, and others refined the original calculations and gave the precise values of the “quantum corrections” needed to describe very small black holes.^[61][62]

The black holes that Strominger and Vafa considered in their original work were quite different from real astrophysical black holes. One difference was that Strominger and Vafa considered only extremal black holes in order to make the calculation tractable. These are defined as black holes with the lowest possible mass compatible with a given charge.^[63] Strominger and Vafa also restricted attention to black holes in five-dimensional spacetime with unphysical supersymmetry.^[64]

Although it was originally developed in this very particular and physically unrealistic context in string theory, the entropy calculation of Strominger and Vafa has led to a qualitative understanding of how black hole entropy can be accounted for in any theory of quantum gravity. Indeed, in 1998, Strominger argued that the original result could be generalized to an arbitrary consistent theory of quantum gravity without relying on strings or supersymmetry.^[65] In collaboration with several other authors in 2010, he showed that some results on black hole entropy could be extended to non-extremal astrophysical black holes.^[66][67]

AdS/CFT correspondence

Main article: AdS/CFT correspondence

One approach to formulating string theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence. This is a theoretical result that implies that string theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory. In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string theory, the AdS/CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective.^[6] The AdS/CFT correspondence was first proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997.^[68] Important aspects of the correspondence were elaborated in articles by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov, and Alexander Markovich Polyakov,^[69] and by Edward Witten.^[70] By 2010, Maldacena’s article had over 7000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics.^[b]

Overview of the correspondence

In the AdS/CFT correspondence, the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein’s equation called anti-de Sitter space.^[6] In very elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry. It is closely related to hyperbolic space, which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left.^[71] This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares. One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior.^[72]

One can imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting geometric object is three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space.^[71] It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk. Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture. The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT correspondence. As with the hyperbolic plane, anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface.^[72]

This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension, but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions. Indeed, hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can “stack up” copies of hyperbolic space to get higher-dimensional models of anti-de Sitter space.^[71]

An important feature of anti-de Sitter space is its boundary (which looks like a cylinder in the case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space). One property of this boundary is that, within a small region on the surface around any given point, it looks just like Minkowski space, the model of spacetime used in non-gravitational physics.^[73] One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which “spacetime” is given by the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. This observation is the starting point for AdS/CFT correspondence, which states that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space can be regarded as the “spacetime” for a quantum field theory. The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to a gravitational theory, such as string theory, in the bulk anti-de Sitter space in the sense that there is a “dictionary” for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory. For example, a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory. In addition, the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory, then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding.^[74]

Applications to quantum gravity

The discovery of the AdS/CFT correspondence was a major advance in physicists’ understanding of string theory and quantum gravity. One reason for this is that the correspondence provides a formulation of string theory in terms of quantum field theory, which is well understood by comparison. Another reason is that it provides a general framework in which physicists can study and attempt to resolve the paradoxes of black holes.^[53]

In 1975, Stephen Hawking published a calculation which suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon.^[56] At first, Hawking’s result posed a problem for theorists because it suggested that black holes destroy information. More precisely, Hawking’s calculation seemed to conflict with one of the basic postulates of quantum mechanics, which states that physical systems evolve in time according to the Schrödinger equation. This property is usually referred to as unitarity of time evolution. The apparent contradiction between Hawking’s calculation and the unitarity postulate of quantum mechanics came to be known as the black hole information paradox.^[75]

The AdS/CFT correspondence resolves the black hole information paradox, at least to some extent, because it shows how a black hole can evolve in a manner consistent with quantum mechanics in some contexts. Indeed, one can consider black holes in the context of the AdS/CFT correspondence, and any such black hole corresponds to a configuration of particles on the boundary of anti-de Sitter space.^[76] These particles obey the usual rules of quantum mechanics and in particular evolve in a unitary fashion, so the black hole must also evolve in a unitary fashion, respecting the principles of quantum mechanics.^[77] In 2005, Hawking announced that the paradox had been settled in favor of information conservation by the AdS/CFT correspondence, and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which black holes might preserve information.^[78]

Applications to nuclear physics

Main article: AdS/QCD correspondence

In addition to its applications to theoretical problems in quantum gravity, the AdS/CFT correspondence has been applied to a variety of problems in quantum field theory. One physical system that has been studied using the AdS/CFT correspondence is the quark–gluon plasma, an exotic state of matter produced in particle accelerators. This state of matter arises for brief instants when heavy ions such as gold or lead nuclei are collided at high energies. Such collisions cause the quarks that make up atomic nuclei to deconfine at temperatures of approximately two trillion kelvin, conditions similar to those present at around 10⁻¹¹ seconds after the Big Bang.^[79]

The physics of the quark–gluon plasma is governed by a theory called quantum chromodynamics, but this theory is mathematically intractable in problems involving the quark–gluon plasma.^[c] In an article appearing in 2005, Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators showed that the AdS/CFT correspondence could be used to understand some aspects of the quark-gluon plasma by describing it in the language of string theory.^[80] By applying the AdS/CFT correspondence, Sơn and his collaborators were able to describe the quark-gluon plasma in terms of black holes in five-dimensional spacetime. The calculation showed that the ratio of two quantities associated with the quark-gluon plasma, the shear viscosity and volume density of entropy, should be approximately equal to a certain universal constant. In 2008, the predicted value of this ratio for the quark-gluon plasma was confirmed at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory.^[7][81]

Applications to condensed matter physics

Main article: AdS/CMT correspondence

The AdS/CFT correspondence has also been used to study aspects of condensed matter physics. Over the decades, experimental condensed matter physicists have discovered a number of exotic states of matter, including superconductors and superfluids. These states are described using the formalism of quantum field theory, but some phenomena are difficult to explain using standard field theoretic techniques. Some condensed matter theorists including Subir Sachdev hope that the AdS/CFT correspondence will make it possible to describe these systems in the language of string theory and learn more about their behavior.^[7]

So far some success has been achieved in using string theory methods to describe the transition of a superfluid to an insulator. A superfluid is a system of electrically neutral atoms that flows without any friction. Such systems are often produced in the laboratory using liquid helium, but recently experimentalists have developed new ways of producing artificial superfluids by pouring trillions of cold atoms into a lattice of criss-crossing lasers. These atoms initially behave as a superfluid, but as experimentalists increase the intensity of the lasers, they become less mobile and then suddenly transition to an insulating state. During the transition, the atoms behave in an unusual way. For example, the atoms slow to a halt at a rate that depends on the temperature and on the Planck constant, the fundamental parameter of quantum mechanics, which does not enter into the description of the other phases. This behavior has recently been understood by considering a dual description where properties of the fluid are described in terms of a higher dimensional black hole.^[8]

Phenomenology

Main article: String phenomenology

In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest, string theory provides a framework for constructing models of real-world physics that combine general relativity and particle physics. Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas. String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic or semi-realistic models based on string theory.

Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies needed to test these theories experimentally, there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature. This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems.^[12]

Particle physics

The currently accepted theory describing elementary particles and their interactions is known as the standard model of particle physics. This theory provides a unified description of three of the fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Despite its remarkable success in explaining a wide range of physical phenomena, the standard model cannot be a complete description of reality. This is because the standard model fails to incorporate the force of gravity and because of problems such as the hierarchy problem and the inability to explain the structure of fermion masses or dark matter.

String theory has been used to construct a variety of models of particle physics going beyond the standard model. Typically, such models are based on the idea of compactification. Starting with the ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime of string or M-theory, physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions. By choosing this shape appropriately, they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics, together with additional undiscovered particles.^[82] One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. Such compactifications offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory.^[83] Other similar methods can be used to construct realistic or semi-realistic models of our four-dimensional world based on M-theory.^[84]

Cosmology

Main article: String cosmology

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. Despite its success in explaining many observed features of the universe including galactic redshifts, the relative abundance of light elements such as hydrogen and helium, and the existence of a cosmic microwave background, there are several questions that remain unanswered. For example, the standard Big Bang model does not explain why the universe appears to be the same in all directions, why it appears flat on very large distance scales, or why certain hypothesized particles such as magnetic monopoles are not observed in experiments.^[85]

Currently, the leading candidate for a theory going beyond the Big Bang is the theory of cosmic inflation. Developed by Alan Guth and others in the 1980s, inflation postulates a period of extremely rapid accelerated expansion of the universe prior to the expansion described by the standard Big Bang theory. The theory of cosmic inflation preserves the successes of the Big Bang while providing a natural explanation for some of the mysterious features of the universe.^[86] The theory has also received striking support from observations of the cosmic microwave background, the radiation that has filled the sky since around 380,000 years after the Big Bang.^[87]

In the theory of inflation, the rapid initial expansion of the universe is caused by a hypothetical particle called the inflaton. The exact properties of this particle are not fixed by the theory but should ultimately be derived from a more fundamental theory such as string theory.^[88] Indeed, there have been a number of attempts to identify an inflaton within the spectrum of particles described by string theory and to study inflation using string theory. While these approaches might eventually find support in observational data such as measurements of the cosmic microwave background, the application of string theory to cosmology is still in its early stages.^[89]

Connections to mathematics

In addition to influencing research in theoretical physics, string theory has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Like many developing ideas in theoretical physics, string theory does not at present have a mathematically rigorous formulation in which all of its concepts can be defined precisely. As a result, physicists who study string theory are often guided by physical intuition to conjecture relationships between the seemingly different mathematical structures that are used to formalize different parts of the theory. These conjectures are later proved by mathematicians, and in this way, string theory serves as a source of new ideas in pure mathematics.^[90]

Mirror symmetry

Main article: Mirror symmetry (string theory)

After Calabi–Yau manifolds had entered physics as a way to compactify extra dimensions in string theory, many physicists began studying these manifolds. In the late 1980s, several physicists noticed that given such a compactification of string theory, it is not possible to reconstruct uniquely a corresponding Calabi–Yau manifold.^[91] Instead, two different versions of string theory, type IIA and type IIB, can be compactified on completely different Calabi–Yau manifolds giving rise to the same physics. In this situation, the manifolds are called mirror manifolds, and the relationship between the two physical theories is called mirror symmetry.^[28]

Regardless of whether Calabi–Yau compactifications of string theory provide a correct description of nature, the existence of the mirror duality between different string theories has significant mathematical consequences. The Calabi–Yau manifolds used in string theory are of interest in pure mathematics, and mirror symmetry allows mathematicians to solve problems in enumerative geometry, a branch of mathematics concerned with counting the numbers of solutions to geometric questions.^[28][92]

Enumerative geometry studies a class of geometric objects called algebraic varieties which are defined by the vanishing of polynomials. For example, the Clebsch cubic illustrated on the right is an algebraic variety defined using a certain polynomial of degree three in four variables. A celebrated result of nineteenth-century mathematicians Arthur Cayley and George Salmon states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on such a surface.^[93]

Generalizing this problem, one can ask how many lines can be drawn on a quintic Calabi–Yau manifold, such as the one illustrated above, which is defined by a polynomial of degree five. This problem was solved by the nineteenth-century German mathematician Hermann Schubert, who found that there are exactly 2,875 such lines. In 1986, geometer Sheldon Katz proved that the number of curves, such as circles, that are defined by polynomials of degree two and lie entirely in the quintic is 609,250.^[94]

By the year 1991, most of the classical problems of enumerative geometry had been solved and interest in enumerative geometry had begun to diminish.^[95] The field was reinvigorated in May 1991 when physicists Philip Candelas, Xenia de la Ossa, Paul Green, and Linda Parkes showed that mirror symmetry could be used to translate difficult mathematical questions about one Calabi–Yau manifold into easier questions about its mirror.^[96] In particular, they used mirror symmetry to show that a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold can contain exactly 317,206,375 curves of degree three.^[95] In addition to counting degree-three curves, Candelas and his collaborators obtained a number of more general results for counting rational curves which went far beyond the results obtained by mathematicians.^[97]

Originally, these results of Candelas were justified on physical grounds. However, mathematicians generally prefer rigorous proofs that do not require an appeal to physical intuition. Inspired by physicists’ work on mirror symmetry, mathematicians have therefore constructed their own arguments proving the enumerative predictions of mirror symmetry.^[d] Today mirror symmetry is an active area of research in mathematics, and mathematicians are working to develop a more complete mathematical understanding of mirror symmetry based on physicists’ intuition.^[103] Major approaches to mirror symmetry include the homological mirror symmetry program of Maxim Kontsevich^[29] and the SYZ conjecture of Andrew Strominger, Shing-Tung Yau, and Eric Zaslow.^[104]

Monstrous moonshine

Main article: Monstrous moonshine

Group theory is the branch of mathematics that studies the concept of symmetry. For example, one can consider a geometric shape such as an equilateral triangle. There are various operations that one can perform on this triangle without changing its shape. One can rotate it through 120°, 240°, or 360°, or one can reflect in any of the lines labeled S₀, S₁, or S₂ in the picture. Each of these operations is called a symmetry, and the collection of these symmetries satisfies certain technical properties making it into what mathematicians call a group. In this particular example, the group is known as the dihedral group of order 6 because it has six elements. A general group may describe finitely many or infinitely many symmetries; if there are only finitely many symmetries, it is called a finite group.^[105]

Mathematicians often strive for a classification (or list) of all mathematical objects of a given type. It is generally believed that finite groups are too diverse to admit a useful classification. A more modest but still challenging problem is to classify all finite simple groups. These are finite groups that may be used as building blocks for constructing arbitrary finite groups in the same way that prime numbers can be used to construct arbitrary whole numbers by taking products.^[e] One of the major achievements of contemporary group theory is the classification of finite simple groups, a mathematical theorem that provides a list of all possible finite simple groups.^[105]

This classification theorem identifies several infinite families of groups as well as 26 additional groups which do not fit into any family. The latter groups are called the “sporadic” groups, and each one owes its existence to a remarkable combination of circumstances. The largest sporadic group, the so-called monster group, has over 10⁵³ elements, more than a thousand times the number of atoms in the Earth.^[106]

A seemingly unrelated construction is the j-function of number theory. This object belongs to a special class of functions called modular functions, whose graphs form a certain kind of repeating pattern.^[107] Although this function appears in a branch of mathematics that seems very different from the theory of finite groups, the two subjects turn out to be intimately related. In the late 1970s, mathematicians John McKay and John Thompson noticed that certain numbers arising in the analysis of the monster group (namely, the dimensions of its irreducible representations) are related to numbers that appear in a formula for the j-function (namely, the coefficients of its Fourier series).^[108] This relationship was further developed by John Horton Conway and Simon Norton^[109] who called it monstrous moonshine because it seemed so far fetched.^[110]

In 1992, Richard Borcherds constructed a bridge between the theory of modular functions and finite groups and, in the process, explained the observations of McKay and Thompson.^[111][112] Borcherds’ work used ideas from string theory in an essential way, extending earlier results of Igor Frenkel, James Lepowsky, and Arne Meurman, who had realized the monster group as the symmetries of a particular^[which?] version of string theory.^[113] In 1998, Borcherds was awarded the Fields medal for his work.^[114]

Since the 1990s, the connection between string theory and moonshine has led to further results in mathematics and physics.^[106] In 2010, physicists Tohru Eguchi, Hirosi Ooguri, and Yuji Tachikawa discovered connections between a different sporadic group, the Mathieu group M₂₄, and a certain version^[which?] of string theory.^[115] Miranda Cheng, John Duncan, and Jeffrey A. Harvey proposed a generalization of this moonshine phenomenon called umbral moonshine,^[116] and their conjecture was proved mathematically by Duncan, Michael Griffin, and Ken Ono.^[117] Witten has also speculated that the version of string theory appearing in monstrous moonshine might be related to a certain simplified model of gravity in three spacetime dimensions.^[118]

History

Main article: History of string theory

Early results

Some of the structures reintroduced by string theory arose for the first time much earlier as part of the program of classical unification started by Albert Einstein. The first person to add a fifth dimension to a theory of gravity was Gunnar Nordström in 1914, who noted that gravity in five dimensions describes both gravity and electromagnetism in four. Nordström attempted to unify electromagnetism with his theory of gravitation, which was however superseded by Einstein’s general relativity in 1919. Thereafter, German mathematician Theodor Kaluza combined the fifth dimension with general relativity, and only Kaluza is usually credited with the idea. In 1926, the Swedish physicist Oskar Klein gave a physical interpretation of the unobservable extra dimension—it is wrapped into a small circle. Einstein introduced a non-symmetric metric tensor, while much later Brans and Dicke added a scalar component to gravity. These ideas would be revived within string theory, where they are demanded by consistency conditions.

String theory was originally developed during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a never completely successful theory of hadrons, the subatomic particles like the proton and neutron that feel the strong interaction. In the 1960s, Geoffrey Chew and Steven Frautschi discovered that the mesons make families called Regge trajectories with masses related to spins in a way that was later understood by Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen and Leonard Susskind to be the relationship expected from rotating strings. Chew advocated making a theory for the interactions of these trajectories that did not presume that they were composed of any fundamental particles, but would construct their interactions from self-consistency conditions on the S-matrix. The S-matrix approach was started by Werner Heisenberg in the 1940s as a way of constructing a theory that did not rely on the local notions of space and time, which Heisenberg believed break down at the nuclear scale. While the scale was off by many orders of magnitude, the approach he advocated was ideally suited for a theory of quantum gravity.

Working with experimental data, R. Dolen, D. Horn and C. Schmid developed some sum rules for hadron exchange. When a particle and antiparticle scatter, virtual particles can be exchanged in two qualitatively different ways. In the s-channel, the two particles annihilate to make temporary intermediate states that fall apart into the final state particles. In the t-channel, the particles exchange intermediate states by emission and absorption. In field theory, the two contributions add together, one giving a continuous background contribution, the other giving peaks at certain energies. In the data, it was clear that the peaks were stealing from the background—the authors interpreted this as saying that the t-channel contribution was dual to the s-channel one, meaning both described the whole amplitude and included the other.

The result was widely advertised by Murray Gell-Mann, leading Gabriele Veneziano to construct a scattering amplitude that had the property of Dolen–Horn–Schmid duality, later renamed world-sheet duality. The amplitude needed poles where the particles appear, on straight-line trajectories, and there is a special mathematical function whose poles are evenly spaced on half the real line—the gamma function—which was widely used in Regge theory. By manipulating combinations of gamma functions, Veneziano was able to find a consistent scattering amplitude with poles on straight lines, with mostly positive residues, which obeyed duality and had the appropriate Regge scaling at high energy. The amplitude could fit near-beam scattering data as well as other Regge type fits and had a suggestive integral representation that could be used for generalization.

Over the next years, hundreds of physicists worked to complete the bootstrap program for this model, with many surprises. Veneziano himself discovered that for the scattering amplitude to describe the scattering of a particle that appears in the theory, an obvious self-consistency condition, the lightest particle must be a tachyon. Miguel Virasoro and Joel Shapiro found a different amplitude now understood to be that of closed strings, while Ziro Koba and Holger Nielsen generalized Veneziano’s integral representation to multiparticle scattering. Veneziano and Sergio Fubini introduced an operator formalism for computing the scattering amplitudes that was a forerunner of world-sheet conformal theory, while Virasoro understood how to remove the poles with wrong-sign residues using a constraint on the states. Claud Lovelace calculated a loop amplitude, and noted that there is an inconsistency unless the dimension of the theory is 26. Charles Thorn, Peter Goddard and Richard Brower went on to prove that there are no wrong-sign propagating states in dimensions less than or equal to 26.

In 1969–1970, Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen, and Leonard Susskind recognized that the theory could be given a description in space and time in terms of strings. The scattering amplitudes were derived systematically from the action principle by Peter Goddard, Jeffrey Goldstone, Claudio Rebbi, and Charles Thorn, giving a space-time picture to the vertex operators introduced by Veneziano and Fubini and a geometrical interpretation to the Virasoro conditions.

In 1971, Pierre Ramond added fermions to the model, which led him to formulate a two-dimensional supersymmetry to cancel the wrong-sign states. John Schwarz and André Neveu added another sector to the fermi theory a short time later. In the fermion theories, the critical dimension was 10. Stanley Mandelstam formulated a world sheet conformal theory for both the bose and fermi case, giving a two-dimensional field theoretic path-integral to generate the operator formalism. Michio Kaku and Keiji Kikkawa gave a different formulation of the bosonic string, as a string field theory, with infinitely many particle types and with fields taking values not on points, but on loops and curves.

In 1974, Tamiaki Yoneya discovered that all the known string theories included a massless spin-two particle that obeyed the correct Ward identities to be a graviton. John Schwarz and Joël Scherk came to the same conclusion and made the bold leap to suggest that string theory was a theory of gravity, not a theory of hadrons. They reintroduced Kaluza–Klein theory as a way of making sense of the extra dimensions. At the same time, quantum chromodynamics was recognized as the correct theory of hadrons, shifting the attention of physicists and apparently leaving the bootstrap program in the dustbin of history.

String theory eventually made it out of the dustbin, but for the following decade, all work on the theory was completely ignored. Still, the theory continued to develop at a steady pace thanks to the work of a handful of devotees. Ferdinando Gliozzi, Joël Scherk, and David Olive realized in 1977 that the original Ramond and Neveu Schwarz-strings were separately inconsistent and needed to be combined. The resulting theory did not have a tachyon and was proven to have space-time supersymmetry by John Schwarz and Michael Green in 1984. The same year, Alexander Polyakov gave the theory a modern path integral formulation, and went on to develop conformal field theory extensively. In 1979, Daniel Friedan showed that the equations of motions of string theory, which are generalizations of the Einstein equations of general relativity, emerge from the renormalization group equations for the two-dimensional field theory. Schwarz and Green discovered T-duality, and constructed two superstring theories—IIA and IIB related by T-duality, and type I theories with open strings. The consistency conditions had been so strong, that the entire theory was nearly uniquely determined, with only a few discrete choices.

First superstring revolution

In the early 1980s, Edward Witten discovered that most theories of quantum gravity could not accommodate chiral fermions like the neutrino. This led him, in collaboration with Luis Álvarez-Gaumé, to study violations of the conservation laws in gravity theories with anomalies, concluding that type I string theories were inconsistent. Green and Schwarz discovered a contribution to the anomaly that Witten and Alvarez-Gaumé had missed, which restricted the gauge group of the type I string theory to be SO(32). In coming to understand this calculation, Edward Witten became convinced that string theory was truly a consistent theory of gravity, and he became a high-profile advocate. Following Witten’s lead, between 1984 and 1986, hundreds of physicists started to work in this field, and this is sometimes called the first superstring revolution.^{[citation needed]}

During this period, David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm discovered heterotic strings. The gauge group of these closed strings was two copies of E8, and either copy could easily and naturally include the standard model. Philip Candelas, Gary Horowitz, Andrew Strominger and Edward Witten found that the Calabi–Yau manifolds are the compactifications that preserve a realistic amount of supersymmetry, while Lance Dixon and others worked out the physical properties of orbifolds, distinctive geometrical singularities allowed in string theory. Cumrun Vafa generalized T-duality from circles to arbitrary manifolds, creating the mathematical field of mirror symmetry. Daniel Friedan, Emil Martinec and Stephen Shenker further developed the covariant quantization of the superstring using conformal field theory techniques. David Gross and Vipul Periwal discovered that string perturbation theory was divergent. Stephen Shenker showed it diverged much faster than in field theory suggesting that new non-perturbative objects were missing.^{[citation needed]}

In the 1990s, Joseph Polchinski discovered that the theory requires higher-dimensional objects, called D-branes and identified these with the black-hole solutions of supergravity. These were understood to be the new objects suggested by the perturbative divergences, and they opened up a new field with rich mathematical structure. It quickly became clear that D-branes and other p-branes, not just strings, formed the matter content of the string theories, and the physical interpretation of the strings and branes was revealed—they are a type of black hole. Leonard Susskind had incorporated the holographic principle of Gerardus ‘t Hooft into string theory, identifying the long highly excited string states with ordinary thermal black hole states. As suggested by ‘t Hooft, the fluctuations of the black hole horizon, the world-sheet or world-volume theory, describes not only the degrees of freedom of the black hole, but all nearby objects too.

Second superstring revolution

In 1995, at the annual conference of string theorists at the University of Southern California (USC), Edward Witten gave a speech on string theory that in essence united the five string theories that existed at the time, and giving birth to a new 11-dimensional theory called M-theory. M-theory was also foreshadowed in the work of Paul Townsend at approximately the same time. The flurry of activity that began at this time is sometimes called the second superstring revolution.^[31]

During this period, Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker and Leonard Susskind formulated matrix theory, a full holographic description of M-theory using IIA D0 branes.^[48] This was the first definition of string theory that was fully non-perturbative and a concrete mathematical realization of the holographic principle. It is an example of a gauge-gravity duality and is now understood to be a special case of the AdS/CFT correspondence. Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa calculated the entropy of certain configurations of D-branes and found agreement with the semi-classical answer for extreme charged black holes.^[59] Petr Hořava and Witten found the eleven-dimensional formulation of the heterotic string theories, showing that orbifolds solve the chirality problem. Witten noted that the effective description of the physics of D-branes at low energies is by a supersymmetric gauge theory, and found geometrical interpretations of mathematical structures in gauge theory that he and Nathan Seiberg had earlier discovered in terms of the location of the branes.

In 1997, Juan Maldacena noted that the low energy excitations of a theory near a black hole consist of objects close to the horizon, which for extreme charged black holes looks like an anti-de Sitter space.^[68] He noted that in this limit the gauge theory describes the string excitations near the branes. So he hypothesized that string theory on a near-horizon extreme-charged black-hole geometry, an anti-de Sitter space times a sphere with flux, is equally well described by the low-energy limiting gauge theory, the N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory. This hypothesis, which is called the AdS/CFT correspondence, was further developed by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov and Alexander Polyakov,^[69] and by Edward Witten,^[70] and it is now well-accepted. It is a concrete realization of the holographic principle, which has far-reaching implications for black holes, locality and information in physics, as well as the nature of the gravitational interaction.^[53] Through this relationship, string theory has been shown to be related to gauge theories like quantum chromodynamics and this has led to a more quantitative understanding of the behavior of hadrons, bringing string theory back to its roots.^{[citation needed]}

Criticism

Number of solutions

Main article: String theory landscape

To construct models of particle physics based on string theory, physicists typically begin by specifying a shape for the extra dimensions of spacetime. Each of these different shapes corresponds to a different possible universe, or “vacuum state”, with a different collection of particles and forces. String theory as it is currently understood has an enormous number of vacuum states, typically estimated to be around 10⁵⁰⁰, and these might be sufficiently diverse to accommodate almost any phenomenon that might be observed at low energies.^[119]

Many critics of string theory have expressed concerns about the large number of possible universes described by string theory. In his book Not Even Wrong, Peter Woit, a lecturer in the mathematics department at Columbia University, has argued that the large number of different physical scenarios renders string theory vacuous as a framework for constructing models of particle physics. According to Woit,

The possible existence of, say, 10⁵⁰⁰ consistent different vacuum states for superstring theory probably destroys the hope of using the theory to predict anything. If one picks among this large set just those states whose properties agree with present experimental observations, it is likely there still will be such a large number of these that one can get just about whatever value one wants for the results of any new observation.^[120]

Some physicists believe this large number of solutions is actually a virtue because it may allow a natural anthropic explanation of the observed values of physical constants, in particular the small value of the cosmological constant.^[120] The anthropic principle is the idea that some of the numbers appearing in the laws of physics are not fixed by any fundamental principle but must be compatible with the evolution of intelligent life. In 1987, Steven Weinberg published an article in which he argued that the cosmological constant could not have been too large, or else galaxies and intelligent life would not have been able to develop.^[121] Weinberg suggested that there might be a huge number of possible consistent universes, each with a different value of the cosmological constant, and observations indicate a small value of the cosmological constant only because humans happen to live in a universe that has allowed intelligent life, and hence observers, to exist.^[122]

String theorist Leonard Susskind has argued that string theory provides a natural anthropic explanation of the small value of the cosmological constant.^[123] According to Susskind, the different vacuum states of string theory might be realized as different universes within a larger multiverse. The fact that the observed universe has a small cosmological constant is just a tautological consequence of the fact that a small value is required for life to exist.^[124] Many prominent theorists and critics have disagreed with Susskind’s conclusions.^[125] According to Woit, “in this case [anthropic reasoning] is nothing more than an excuse for failure. Speculative scientific ideas fail not just when they make incorrect predictions, but also when they turn out to be vacuous and incapable of predicting anything.”^[126]

Compatibility with dark energy

It remains unknown whether string theory is compatible with a metastable, positive cosmological constant. Some putative examples of such solutions do exist, such as the model described by Kachru et al. in 2003.^[127] In 2018, a group of four physicists advanced a controversial conjecture which would imply that no such universe exists. This is contrary to some popular models of dark energy such as Λ-CDM, which requires a positive vacuum energy. However, string theory is likely compatible with certain types of quintessence, where dark energy is caused by a new field with exotic properties.^[128]

Background independence

Main article: Background independence

One of the fundamental properties of Einstein’s general theory of relativity is that it is background independent, meaning that the formulation of the theory does not in any way privilege a particular spacetime geometry.^[129]

One of the main criticisms of string theory from early on is that it is not manifestly background-independent. In string theory, one must typically specify a fixed reference geometry for spacetime, and all other possible geometries are described as perturbations of this fixed one. In his book The Trouble With Physics, physicist Lee Smolin of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics claims that this is the principal weakness of string theory as a theory of quantum gravity, saying that string theory has failed to incorporate this important insight from general relativity.^[130]

Others have disagreed with Smolin’s characterization of string theory. In a review of Smolin’s book, string theorist Joseph Polchinski writes

[Smolin] is mistaking an aspect of the mathematical language being used for one of the physics being described. New physical theories are often discovered using a mathematical language that is not the most suitable for them… In string theory, it has always been clear that the physics is background-independent even if the language being used is not, and the search for a more suitable language continues. Indeed, as Smolin belatedly notes, [AdS/CFT] provides a solution to this problem, one that is unexpected and powerful.^[131]

Polchinski notes that an important open problem in quantum gravity is to develop holographic descriptions of gravity which do not require the gravitational field to be asymptotically anti-de Sitter.^[131] Smolin has responded by saying that the AdS/CFT correspondence, as it is currently understood, may not be strong enough to resolve all concerns about background independence.^[132]

Sociology of science

Since the superstring revolutions of the 1980s and 1990s, string theory has been one of the dominant paradigms of high energy theoretical physics.^[133] Some string theorists have expressed the view that there does not exist an equally successful alternative theory addressing the deep questions of fundamental physics. In an interview from 1987, Nobel laureate David Gross made the following controversial comments about the reasons for the popularity of string theory:

The most important [reason] is that there are no other good ideas around. That’s what gets most people into it. When people started to get interested in string theory they didn’t know anything about it. In fact, the first reaction of most people is that the theory is extremely ugly and unpleasant, at least that was the case a few years ago when the understanding of string theory was much less developed. It was difficult for people to learn about it and to be turned on. So I think the real reason why people have got attracted by it is because there is no other game in town. All other approaches of constructing grand unified theories, which were more conservative to begin with, and only gradually became more and more radical, have failed, and this game hasn’t failed yet.^[134]

Several other high-profile theorists and commentators have expressed similar views, suggesting that there are no viable alternatives to string theory.^[135]

Many critics of string theory have commented on this state of affairs. In his book criticizing string theory, Peter Woit views the status of string theory research as unhealthy and detrimental to the future of fundamental physics. He argues that the extreme popularity of string theory among theoretical physicists is partly a consequence of the financial structure of academia and the fierce competition for scarce resources.^[136] In his book The Road to Reality, mathematical physicist Roger Penrose expresses similar views, stating “The often frantic competitiveness that this ease of communication engenders leads to bandwagon effects, where researchers fear to be left behind if they do not join in.”^[137] Penrose also claims that the technical difficulty of modern physics forces young scientists to rely on the preferences of established researchers, rather than forging new paths of their own.^[138] Lee Smolin expresses a slightly different position in his critique, claiming that string theory grew out of a tradition of particle physics which discourages speculation about the foundations of physics, while his preferred approach, loop quantum gravity, encourages more radical thinking. According to Smolin,

String theory is a powerful, well-motivated idea and deserves much of the work that has been devoted to it. If it has so far failed, the principal reason is that its intrinsic flaws are closely tied to its strengths—and, of course, the story is unfinished, since string theory may well turn out to be part of the truth. The real question is not why we have expended so much energy on string theory but why we haven’t expended nearly enough on alternative approaches.^[139]

Smolin goes on to offer a number of prescriptions for how scientists might encourage a greater diversity of approaches to quantum gravity research.^[140]

Be careful what you wish for when you are young and have a dream.

Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight

Psychological and sociological effects of space flight are important to understanding how to successfully achieve the goals of long-duration expeditionary missions. Although robotic spacecraft have landed on Mars, plans have also been discussed for a human expedition, perhaps in the 2030s,^[1] for a return mission.

A Mars return expedition may last two to three years^[2] and may involve a crew of four to seven people, although shorter flyby missions of approximately 1+¹⁄₂ years with only two people have been proposed,^[3] as well as one-way missions that include landing on Mars with no return trip planned.^[4][5] Although there are a number of technological and physiological issues involved with such a mission that remain to be worked out, there are also a number of behavioral issues affecting the crew that are being addressed before launching such missions. In preparing for such an expedition, important psychological, interpersonal, and psychiatric issues occurring in human spaceflight missions are under study by national space agencies and others.

In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to human spaceflight, including a human mission to Mars.^[6][7]

Psychosocial issues on-orbit

Researchers have conducted two NASA-funded international studies of psychological and interpersonal issues during on-orbit missions to the Mir and the International Space Station. Both crew members and mission control personnel were studied. The Mir sample involved 13 astronauts and cosmonauts and 58 American and Russian mission control personnel. The corresponding numbers in the ISS study were 17 space travelers and 128 people on Earth. Subjects completed a weekly questionnaire that included items from a number of valid and reliable measures that assessed mood and group dynamics. Both studies had similar findings. There was significant evidence for the displacement of tension and negative emotions from the crew members to mission control personnel. The support role of the commander was significantly and positively related to group cohesion among crew members, and both the task and support roles of the team leader were significantly related to cohesion among people in mission control. Crew members scored higher in cultural sophistication than mission control personnel. Russians reported greater language flexibility than Americans. Americans scored higher on a measure of work pressure than Russians, but Russians reported higher levels of tension on the ISS than Americans. There were no significant changes in levels of emotion and group interpersonal climate over time. Specifically, there was no evidence for a general worsening of mood and cohesion after the halfway point of the missions,^{[8][9][10][11]} an occurrence some have called the 3rd quarter phenomenon.^[12]

Other psychosocial studies involving astronauts and cosmonauts have been conducted. In one, an analysis of speech patterns as well as subjective attitudes and personal values were measured in both on-orbit space crews and people working in space analog environments. The researchers found that, over time, these isolated groups showed decreases in the scope and content of their communications and a filtering in what they said to outside personnel, which was termed psychological closing. Crew members interacted less with some mission control personnel than others, perceiving them as opponents. This tendency of some crew members to become more egocentric was called autonomization.^[13][14] They also found that crew members became more cohesive by spending time together (for example, joint birthday celebrations),^[15] and that the presence of subgroups and outliers (e.g., scapegoats) negatively affected group cohesion.^[16] In a study of 12 ISS cosmonauts, researchers reported that personal values generally remained stable, with those related to the fulfillment of professional activities and good social relationships being rated most highly.^[17]

Another study examined potentially disruptive cultural issues affecting space missions in a survey of 75 astronauts and cosmonauts and 106 mission control personnel. The subjects rated coordination difficulties between the different space organizations involved with the missions as the biggest problem. Other problems included communication misunderstandings and differences in work management styles.^[18]

In a study of 11 cosmonauts regarding their opinions of possible psychological and interpersonal problems that might occur during a Mars expedition, researchers found several factors to be rated highly: isolation and monotony, distance-related communication delays with the Earth, leadership issues, differences in space agency management styles, and cultural misunderstandings within international crews.^[19]

In a survey of 576 employees of the European Space Agency (ESA), a negative link was found between cultural diversity and the ability of people to interact with one another. The more diversity within the crew, the worse the interactions became. Especially important were factors related to leadership and decision-making.^[20]

Another study looked at content analysis of personal journals from ten ISS astronauts that were oriented around a number of issues that had behavioral implications. Findings included that 88% of the entries dealt with the following categories: Work, Outside Communications, Adjustment, Group Interaction, Recreation/Leisure, Equipment, Events, Organization/Management, Sleep, and Food. In general, the crew members reported that their life in space was not as difficult as they expected prior to launch, despite a 20% increase in interpersonal problems during the second half of the missions. It was recommended that future crew members be allowed to control their individual schedules as much as possible.^[21]

On-orbit and post-spaceflight psychiatric issues

A number of psychiatric problems have been reported during on-orbit space missions.^[1] Most common are adjustment reactions to the novelty of being in space, with symptoms generally including transient anxiety or depression. Psychosomatic reactions also have occurred, where anxiety and other emotional states are experienced physically as somatic symptoms. Problems related to major mood and thought disorders (e.g., manic-depression, schizophrenia) have not been reported during space missions. This likely is due to the fact that crew members have been screened psychiatrically for constitutional predispositions to these conditions before launch, so the likelihood of these illnesses developing on-orbit is low.

Post-mission personality changes and emotional problems have affected some returning space travelers. These have included anxiety, depression, excessive alcohol use, and marital readjustment difficulties that in some cases have necessitated the use of psychotherapy and psychoactive medications.^[22] Some astronauts have had difficulties adjusting to the resultant fame and media demands that followed their missions, and similar problems are likely to occur in the future following high-profile expeditions, such as a trip to Mars.

Asthenization, a syndrome that includes fatigue, irritability, emotional lability, attention and concentration difficulties, and appetite and sleep problems, has been reported to commonly occur in cosmonauts by Russian flight surgeons.^[23] It has been observed to evolve in clearly defined stages.^[24] It is conceptualized as an adjustment reaction to being in space that is different from neurasthenia, a related neurotic condition seen on Earth.^[25]

The validity of asthenization has been questioned by some in the West, in part because classical neurasthenia is not currently^[when?] recognized in the American psychiatric nomenclature, whereas the illness is accepted in Russia and China. Retrospective analysis of the data from the Soviet Space Biology and Medicine III Mir Space Station study (see ^[23]) has shown that the findings did not support the presence of the asthenization syndrome when crew member on-orbit scores were compared with those from a prototype of asthenization developed by Russian space experts.^[26]

Positive outcomes

Isolated and confined environments may also produce positive experiences.^[27] A survey of 39 astronauts and cosmonauts found that all of the respondents reported positive changes as a result of flying in space. One particular measure stood out: Perceptions of Earth in general were highly positive, while gaining a stronger appreciation of the Earth’s beauty had the highest mean change score.^[28]

Since the early 1990s, research began on the salutogenic (or growth-enhancing) aspects of space travel. One study analyzed the published memoirs of 125 space travelers.^[29] After returning from space, the subjects reported higher levels on categories of Universalism (i.e., greater appreciation for other people and nature), Spirituality, and Power. Russian space travelers scored higher in Achievement and Universalism and lower in Enjoyment than Americans. Overall, these results suggest that traveling in space is a positive and growth-enhancing experience for many of its individual participants.^[29]

From low Earth orbit to expeditions across the inner Solar System

Research to date into human psychological and sociological effects based on on-orbit near-Earth experiences may have limited generalizability to a long-distance, multi-year space expedition, such as a mission to a near-Earth asteroid (which currently is being considered by NASA) or to Mars. In the case of Mars, new stressors will be introduced due to the great distances involved in journeying to the Red Planet. For example, the crew members will be relatively autonomous from terrestrial mission control and will need to plan their work and deal with problems on their own. They are expected to experience significant isolation as the Earth becomes an insignificant bluish-green dot in the heavens, the so-called Earth-out-of-view phenomenon.^[1] From the surface of Mars, there will be two-way communication delays with family and friends back home of up to 44 minutes, as well as low-bandwidth communication channels, adding to the sense of isolation.

The Mars 500 Program

From June 2010 to November 2011, a unique ground-based space analog study took place that was called the Mars 500 Program.^[30] Mars 500 was designed to simulate a 520-day round-trip expedition to Mars, including periods of time where the crew functioned under high autonomy conditions and experienced communication delays with outside monitoring personnel in mission control. Six men were confined in a simulator that was located at the Institute for Biomedical Problems in Moscow. The lower floor consisted of living and laboratory modules for the international crew, and the upper floor contained a mock-up of the Mars surface on which the crew conducted simulated geological and other planetary activities.^[30]

During a 105-day pilot study in 2009 that preceded this mission, the mood and group interactions of a six-man Russian-European crew, as well as the relationships of this crew with outside mission control personnel, were studied. The study found that high work autonomy (where the crew members planned their own schedules) was well received by the crews, mission goals were accomplished, and there were no adverse effects,^[31][32] which echoed positive autonomy findings in other space analog settings.^[33] During the high autonomy period, crew member mood and self-direction were reported as being improved, but mission control personnel reported more anxiety and work role confusion. Despite scoring lower in work pressure overall, the Russian crew members reported a greater rise in work pressure from low to high autonomy than the European participants.^[31]

Several psychosocial studies were conducted during the actual 520-day mission. There were changes in crew member time perception, evidence for the displacement of crew tension to mission control, and decreases in crew member needs and requests during high autonomy, which suggested that they had adapted to this condition.^[34] The crew exhibited increased homogeneity in values and more reluctance to express negative interpersonal feelings over time, which suggested a tendency toward “groupthink“.^[35] Additionally, the crew members experienced increased feelings of loneliness and perceived lower support from colleagues over time, which had a negative effect on cognitive adaptation.^[36] A number of individual differences in terms of sleep pattern, mood, and conflicts with mission control were found and reported using techniques such as wrist actigraphy, the psychomotor vigilance test, and various subjective measures.^[37] A general decrease in group collective time from the outbound phase to the return phase of the simulated flight to Mars was identified. This was accomplished by the evaluation of fixed video recordings of crew behavior during breakfasts through variations in personal actions, visual interactions, and facial expressions.^[38]

Psychosocial and psychiatric issues during an expedition to Mars

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

There are a number of psychosocial and psychiatric issues that may affect crew members^[1] during an expeditionary mission to Mars.^[39][40] In terms of selection, only a subset of all astronaut candidates will be willing to be away from family and friends for the two- to three-year mission, so the pool of possible crew members will be restricted and possibly skewed psychologically in ways that cannot be foreseen.^{[citation needed]} Little is known about the physical and psychological effect of long-duration microgravity and the high radiation that occurs in deep space. In addition, on Mars the crew members will be subjected to a gravity field that is only 38 percent of Earth gravity, and the effect of this situation on their physical and emotional well-being is unknown. Given the long distances involved, the crew must function autonomously and develop their own work schedules and solve operational emergencies themselves. They must also be able to deal with medical and psychiatric emergencies, such as physical trauma due to accidents as well as suicidal or psychotic thinking due to stress and depression. Basic life support and staples such as water and fuel will need to be provided from resources on Mars and its atmosphere.^{[citation needed]} There will be a great deal of leisure time (especially during the outbound and return phases of the mission), and occupying it meaningfully and flexibly may be a challenge.^{[citation needed]}

Furthermore, Kanas points out that during on-orbit or lunar missions a number of interventions have been implemented successfully to support crew member psychological well-being.^{[undue weight? – discuss]} These have included family conferences in real time (i.e., with no appreciable delays), frequent consultations with mission control, and the sending of gifts and favorite foods on resupply ships to enhance morale. Such actions have helped to provide stimulation and counter the effects of isolation, loneliness, asthenization, and limited social contact. But with the delays in crew-ground communication and the inability to send needed resupplies in a timely manner due to the vast distances between the habitats on Mars and Earth, the currently used Earth-based support strategies will be seriously constrained, and new strategies will be needed.^{[citation needed]} Finally, since gazing at the Earth’s beauty has been rated as the major positive factor of being in space,^[28] the experience of seeing the Earth as an insignificant dot in the heavens may enhance the sense of isolation and produce increased feelings of homesickness, depression and irritability. This may be ameliorated by having a telescope on board with which to view the Earth, thus helping the crew feel more connected with home.^{[citation needed]}

My cover of the Beatles song Eleanor Rigby.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Rigby

Eleanor Rigby

“Eleanor Rigby”
US picture sleeve
Single by the Beatles
from the album Revolver
A-side	“Yellow Submarine” (double A-side)
Released	5 August 1966
Recorded	28–29 April & 6 June 1966
Studio	EMI, London
Genre	Baroque pop,[1] art rock[2]
Length	2:08
Label	Parlophone (UK), Capitol (US)
Songwriter(s)	Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)	George Martin
The Beatles singles chronology
“Paperback Writer“ (1966)”Yellow Submarine” / “Eleanor Rigby“ (1966)”Strawberry Fields Forever” / “Penny Lane“ (1967)
Music video
“Eleanor Rigby” on YouTube

“Eleanor Rigby” is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1966 album Revolver. It was also issued on a double A-side single, paired with “Yellow Submarine“. Credited to the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership, the song is one of only a few in which John Lennon and Paul McCartney later disputed primary authorship.^[3] Testimony from several independent sources, including George Martin and Pete Shotton, supports McCartney’s claim to authorship.^[4]

“Eleanor Rigby” continued the transformation of the Beatles from a mainly rock and roll and pop-orientated act to a more experimental, studio-based band. With a double string quartet arrangement by George Martin and lyrics providing a narrative on loneliness, it broke sharply with popular music conventions, musically and lyrically.^[5] The song topped singles charts in Australia, Belgium, Canada, and New Zealand.

Background and inspiration

Paul McCartney came up with the melody for “Eleanor Rigby” as he experimented on his piano.^[6][7] Donovan recalled hearing McCartney play an early version of the song on guitar, where the character was named Ola Na Tungee. At this point, the song reflected an Indian musical influence and its lyrics alluded to drug use, with references to “blowing his mind in the dark” and “a pipe full of clay”.^[8]

The name of the protagonist that McCartney initially chose was not Eleanor Rigby, but Miss Daisy Hawkins.^[9] In 1966, McCartney told Sunday Times journalist Hunter Davies how he got the idea for his song:

The first few bars just came to me. And I got this name in my head – “Daisy Hawkins picks up the rice in the church where a wedding has been.” I don’t know why … I couldn’t think of much more so I put it away for a day. Then the name “Father McCartney” came to me – and “all the lonely people”. But I thought people would think it was supposed to be my dad, sitting knitting his socks. Dad’s a happy lad. So I went through the telephone book and I got the name McKenzie.^[10]

McCartney said that the idea to call his character “Eleanor” was possibly because of Eleanor Bron,^[11] the actress who starred with the Beatles in their 1965 film Help!.^[12][10] “Rigby” came from the name of a store in Bristol, Rigby & Evens Ltd.^[10] McCartney noticed the store while visiting his girlfriend of the time, the actress Jane Asher, during her run in the Bristol Old Vic‘s production of The Happiest Days of Your Life in January 1966.^[13][14] He recalled in 1984, “I just liked the name. I was looking for a name that sounded natural. ‘Eleanor Rigby’ sounded natural.”^{[12][15][nb 1]}

In an October 2021 article in The New Yorker, McCartney wrote that his inspiration for “Eleanor Rigby” was an old lady who lived alone and whom he got to know very well. He would go shopping for her and sit in her kitchen listening to stories and her crystal radio set. McCartney said, “just hearing her stories enriched my soul and influenced the songs I would later write.”^[19]

Writing collaboration

McCartney wrote the melody and first verse alone, after which he presented the song to the Beatles when they were gathered in the music room of John Lennon‘s home at Kenwood.^[20] Lennon, George Harrison, Ringo Starr and Lennon’s childhood friend Pete Shotton all listened to McCartney play his song through and contributed ideas.^[21] Harrison came up with the “Ah, look at all the lonely people” hook. Starr contributed the line “writing the words of a sermon that no one will hear” and suggested making “Father McCartney” darn his socks, which McCartney liked.^[21] It was then that Shotton suggested that McCartney change the name of the priest, in case listeners mistook the fictional character for McCartney’s own father.^[22]

McCartney could not decide how to end the song, and Shotton suggested that the two lonely people come together too late as Father McKenzie conducts Eleanor Rigby’s funeral. At the time, Lennon rejected the idea out of hand, but McCartney said nothing and used the idea, later acknowledging Shotton’s help.^[21] In Lennon’s recollection, the final touches were applied to the lyrics in the recording studio, at which point McCartney sought input from Neil Aspinall and Mal Evans, the Beatles’ longstanding road managers.^[23][24][25]

“Eleanor Rigby” serves as a rare example of Lennon subsequently claiming a more substantial role in the creation of a McCartney composition than is supported by others’ recollections.^[26][27] In the early 1970s, Lennon told music journalist Alan Smith that he wrote “about 70 per cent” of the lyrics, and in a letter to Melody Maker complaining about Beatles producer George Martin‘s comments in a recent interview, he said that “Around 50 per cent of the lyrics were written by me at the studios and at Paul’s place.”^[28][29][30] In 1980, he recalled writing almost everything but the first verse.^[31][32] Shotton remembered Lennon’s contribution as being “virtually nil”, while McCartney said that “John helped me on a few words but I’d put it down 80–20 to me, something like that.”^[33][34] According to McCartney, “In My Life” and “Eleanor Rigby” are the only Lennon–McCartney songs where he and Lennon disagreed over their authorship.^[33]

In musicologist Walter Everett‘s view, the lyric writing “likely was a group effort”.^[35] Historiographer Erin Torkelson Weber says that, from all the available accounts, McCartney was the principal author of the song and only Lennon’s post-1970 recollections contradict this.^{[36][nb 2]} In the same 1980 interview, Lennon expressed his resentment at the way McCartney had sought their bandmates’ and friends’ creative input, rather than collaborate with Lennon directly. Lennon added, “That’s the kind of insensitivity he would have, which upset me in later years.”^[23] In addition to citing this emotional hurt, Weber suggests that the song’s critical acclaim may have motivated Lennon’s assertions, as he sought to portray himself as a greater musical genius than McCartney in the years following the Beatles’ break-up.^{[38][nb 3]}

Composition

Music

The song is a prominent example of mode mixture, specifically between the Aeolian mode, also known as natural minor, and the Dorian mode. Set in E minor, the song is based on the chord progression Em–C, typical of the Aeolian mode and using notes ♭ 3, ♭ 6, and ♭7 in this scale. The verse melody is written in Dorian mode, a minor scale with the natural sixth degree.^[40] “Eleanor Rigby” opens with a C-major vocal harmony (“Aah, look at all …”), before shifting to E-minor (on “lonely people”). The Aeolian C-natural note returns later in the verse on the word “dre-eam” (C–B) as the C chord resolves to the tonic Em, giving an urgency to the melody’s mood.

The Dorian mode appears with the C♯ note (6 in the Em scale) at the beginning of the phrase “in the church”. The chorus beginning “All the lonely people” involves the viola in a chromatic descent to the 5th; from 7 (D natural on “All the lonely peo-“) to 6 (C♯ on “-ple”) to ♭6 (C on “they”) to 5 (B on “from”). According to musicologist Dominic Pedler, this adds an “air of inevitability to the flow of the music (and perhaps to the plight of the characters in the song)”.^[41]

Lyrics

London may have been swinging in 1966, but in the midst of the Cold War, Britain was also a place where faith in the old religions was fading, and where many feared annihilation in an atomic Third World War. There is a bleak end-times feel to “Eleanor Rigby” …^[42]

– Author Howard Sounes

The lyrics represent a departure from McCartney’s previous songs, in their avoidance of first- and second-person pronouns and by diverging from the themes of a standard love song.^[43] The narrator takes the form of a detached onlooker, akin to a novelist or screenwriter. Beatles biographer Steve Turner says that this new approach reflects the likely influence of Ray Davies of the Kinks, specifically the latter’s singles “A Well Respected Man” and “Dedicated Follower of Fashion“.^[44]

Author Howard Sounes compares the song’s narrative to “the isolated broken figures” typical of a Samuel Beckett play, as Rigby dies alone, no mourners attend her funeral, and the priest “seems to have lost his congregation and faith”.^[42] In Everett’s view, McCartney’s description of Rigby and McKenzie elevates individuals’ loneliness and wasted lives to a universal level in the manner of Lennon’s autobiographical “Nowhere Man“. Everett adds that McCartney’s imagery is “vivid and yet common enough to elicit enormous compassion for these lost souls”.^[45]

Recording

“Eleanor Rigby”

Duration: 13 seconds.0:13

Sample of “Eleanor Rigby”.

---

“Eleanor Rigby” does not have a standard pop backing. None of the Beatles played instruments on it, although Lennon and Harrison did contribute harmony vocals.^[46] Like the earlier song “Yesterday“, “Eleanor Rigby” employs a classical string ensemble – in this case, an octet of studio musicians, comprising four violins, two violas and two cellos, all performing a score composed by George Martin.^[47] When writing the string arrangement, Martin drew inspiration from Bernard Herrmann‘s work,^[35] particularly the latter’s score for the 1960 film Psycho.^{[48][nb 4]}

Whereas “Yesterday” is played legato, “Eleanor Rigby” is played mainly in staccato chords with melodic embellishments. McCartney, reluctant to repeat what he had done on “Yesterday”, explicitly expressed that he did not want the strings to sound too cloying. For the most part, the instruments “double up” – that is, they serve as a single string quartet but with two instruments playing each of the four parts. Microphones were placed close to the instruments to produce a more biting and raw sound. Engineer Geoff Emerick was admonished by the string players saying “You’re not supposed to do that.” Fearing such close proximity to their instruments would expose the slightest deficiencies in their technique, the players kept moving their chairs away from the microphones^[51] until Martin got on the talk-back system and scolded: “Stop moving the chairs!” Martin recorded two versions, one with vibrato and one without, the latter of which was used. Lennon recalled in 1980 that “Eleanor Rigby” was “Paul’s baby, and I helped with the education of the child … The violin backing was Paul’s idea. Jane Asher had turned him on to Vivaldi, and it was very good.”^[52]

The octet was recorded on 28 April 1966, in Studio 2 at EMI Studios. The track was completed in Studio 3 on 29 April and on 6 June. Take 15 was selected as the master.^[53] The final overdub, on 6 June, was McCartney’s addition of the “Ah, look at all the lonely people” refrain over the song’s final chorus. This was requested by Martin,^[54] who said he came up with the idea of the line working contrapuntally to the chorus melody.^[55]

The original stereo mix had the lead vocal alone in the right channel during the verses, with the strings mixed to one channel, while the mono single and mono LP featured a more balanced mix. For the track’s inclusion on Yellow Submarine Songtrack in 1999, a new stereo mix was created that centres McCartney’s voice and spreads the string octet across the stereo image.^[56]

Release

On 5 August 1966, “Eleanor Rigby” was simultaneously released on a double A-side single, paired with “Yellow Submarine“,^[57] and on the album Revolver.^[58][59] In the LP sequencing, it appeared as the second track, between Harrison’s “Taxman” and Lennon’s “I’m Only Sleeping“.^[60] The Beatles thereby broke with their policy of ensuring that album tracks were not issued on their UK singles.^[61] According to a report in Melody Maker, the reason for this was to thwart sales of cover recordings of “Eleanor Rigby”.^[62] Harrison confirmed that they expected “dozens” of artists to have a hit with the song;^[63] however, he also said the track would “probably only appeal to Ray Davies types”.^[64] Writing in the 1970s, music critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler described the motivation behind the single as a “growing dodge in the ever-innovative music industry”, building on UK record companies’ policy of reissuing an album’s most popular tracks, particularly those that had been culled for release as a single in the US, on a spin-off extended play.^[65]

The pairing of a ballad devoid of any instrumentation played by a Beatle and a novelty song marked a significant departure from the content of the band’s previous singles.^{[66][67][nb 5]} Writing in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever, Nicholas Schaffner recalled that not only did the two sides have little in common with one another, but “‘Yellow Submarine’ was the most flippant and outrageous piece the Beatles would ever produce, [and] ‘Eleanor Rigby’ remains the most relentlessly tragic song the group attempted.”^[67] Unusually for their post-1965 singles also, the Beatles did not make a promotional film for either of the songs.^[69] Music historian David Simonelli groups “Eleanor Rigby” with “Taxman” and the band’s May 1966 single tracks “Paperback Writer” and “Rain” as examples of the Beatles’ “pointed social commentary” that consolidated their “dominance of London’s social scene”.^{[70][nb 6]}

In the United States, the record’s release coincided with the group’s final tour^[73] and a public furore over the publication of Lennon’s remarks that the Beatles had become “more popular than Jesus Christ“;^[74][75] he also predicted the downfall of Christianity^[76] and described Christ’s disciples as “thick and ordinary”.^[77] In the US South, particularly, some radio stations refused to play the band’s music and organised public bonfires to burn Beatles records and memorabilia.^[78][79] Capitol Records were therefore wary of the religious references in “Eleanor Rigby” and promoted “Yellow Submarine” as the lead side.^[80] During the band’s first tour press conference, on 11 August, one reporter suggested that Father McKenzie’s sermons going unheard referred to the decline of religion in society. McCartney replied that the song was about lonely individuals, one of whom happened to be a priest.^{[81][nb 7]}

The double A-side topped the Record Retailer chart (subsequently adopted as the UK Singles Chart) for four weeks,^[85] becoming their eleventh number-one single on the chart,^[86] and Melody Maker‘s chart for three weeks.^[87][88] It was also number 1 in Australia.^[89] The single topped charts in many other countries around the world,^[90] although “Yellow Submarine” was usually the listed side.^[89] In the US, disc jockeys began flipping the single midway through the tour as the radio boycotts were lifted.^[91] With each song eligible to chart separately there, “Eleanor Rigby” entered the Billboard Hot 100 in late August^[92] and peaked at number 11 for two weeks,^[93] and “Yellow Submarine” reached number 2.^{[94][nb 8]}

Critical reception

[In “Eleanor Rigby”, the Beatles are] asking where all the lonely people come from and where they all belong as if they really want to know. Their capacity for fun has been evident since the beginning; their capacity for pity is something new and is a major reason for calling them artists.^[96]

– Dan Sullivan, The New York Times, March 1967

In Melody Maker‘s appraisal of Revolver, the writer described “Eleanor Rigby” as a “charming song” and one of the album’s best tracks.^[97] Derek Johnson, reviewing the single for the NME, said it lacked the immediate appeal of “Yellow Submarine” but “possess[ed] lasting value” and was “beautifully handled by Paul, with baroque-type strings”.^[98] Although he praised the string arrangement, Peter Jones of Record Mirror found the song “Pleasant enough but rather disjointed”, saying, “it’s commercial, but I like more meat from the Beatles.”^[99] Ray Davies offered an unfavourable view^[100] when invited to give a song-by-song rundown of Revolver in Disc and Music Echo.^[101] He dismissed “Eleanor Rigby” as a song designed “to please music teachers in primary schools”,^[102] adding: “I can imagine John saying, ‘I’m going to write this for my old schoolmistress.’ Still it’s very commercial.”^[103]

Reporting from London for The Village Voice, Richard Goldstein stated that Revolver was ubiquitous around the city, as if Londoners were uniting behind the Beatles in response to the antagonism shown towards the band in the US. He wrote: “As a commentary on the state of modern religion, this song will hardly be appreciated by those who see John Lennon as an anti-Christ. But ‘Eleanor Rigby’ is really about the unloved and un-cared-for.”^[104] Commenting on the lyrics, Edward Greenfield of The Guardian wrote, “There you have a quality rare in pop music, compassion, born of an artist’s ability to project himself into other situations.” He found this “Specific understanding of emotion” evident also in McCartney’s new love songs and described him as “the Beatle with the strongest musical staying power”.^[105] While bemoaning that Americans’ attention was overly focused on the band’s image and non-musical activities, KRLA Beat‘s album reviewer predicted that “Eleanor Rigby” would “become a contemporary classic”, adding that, aside from the quality of the string arrangement, “the haunting melody is one of the most beautiful to be found in our current pop music” and the lyrics “[are] both accurate and unforgettable”.^[106] Cash Box found the single’s pairing “unique” and described “Eleanor Rigby” as “a powerfully arranged, haunting story of sorrow and frustration”.^[107]

The NME chose “Eleanor Rigby” as its “Single of the Year” for 1966.^[108] Melody Maker included the song among the year’s five “singles to remember”, and Maureen Cleave of The Evening Standard recognised the single and Revolver as the year’s best records in her round-up of 1966.^[109] At the 9th Annual Grammy Awards in March 1967, “Eleanor Rigby” was nominated in three categories,^[110] winning the award for Best Contemporary (R&R) Vocal Performance, Male or Female for McCartney.^{[111][nb 9]}

Appearance in Yellow Submarine film and subsequent releases

“Eleanor Rigby” appears in the Beatles’ 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine as the band’s submarine drifts over the desolate streets of Liverpool.^[113] Its poignancy ties in quite well with Starr (the first member of the group to encounter the submarine), who is represented as quietly bored and depressed. Starr’s character states in his inner thoughts: “Compared with my life, Eleanor Rigby’s was a gay, mad whirl.”^{[citation needed]} Media theorist Stephanie Fremaux groups the song with “Only a Northern Song” and “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” as a scene that most clearly conveys the Beatles’ “aims as musicians”. In her description, the segment depicts “moments of color and hope in a land of conformity and loneliness”.^[114] With special effects directed by Charlie Jenkins, the animation incorporates photographs of silhouetted people; bankers with bowler hats and umbrellas are seen on rooftops, overlooking the streets.^{[114][nb 10]}

The track also appears on several of the band’s greatest-hits compilations, including A Collection of Beatles Oldies, The Beatles 1962–1966 and 1.^[116][117] In 1986, “Yellow Submarine” / “Eleanor Rigby” was reissued in the UK as part of EMI’s twentieth anniversary of each of the Beatles’ singles and peaked at number 63 on the UK Singles Chart.^[118] The 2015 edition of 1 and the expanded 1+ box set includes a video clip for the song, taken from the Yellow Submarine film.^[119]

In 1996, a stereo remix of Martin’s isolated string arrangement was released on the Beatles’ Anthology 2 outtakes compilation.^[120] For the song’s inclusion on the Love album in 2006, a new mix was created that adds a strings-only portion at the start of the track and closes with a transition featuring part of Lennon’s acoustic guitar from the 1968 song “Julia“.^[121]

The real-life Eleanor Rigby

McCartney’s recollection of how he chose the name of his protagonist came under scrutiny in the 1980s, after a headstone engraved with the name “Eleanor Rigby” was discovered in the churchyard of St Peter’s Parish Church in Woolton, in Liverpool.^[14][122] Part of a well-known local family,^[9] Rigby had died in 1939 at the age of 44.^[16] Close by was a headstone bearing the name McKenzie.^[123][124] St Peter’s was where Lennon attended Sunday school as a boy,^[125] and he and McCartney first met at the church fête there in July 1957.^[14] McCartney has said that while he often walked through the churchyard, he had no recollection of ever seeing Rigby’s grave.^[125] He attributed the coincidence to a product of his subconscious.^[123][42] McCartney has also dismissed claims by people who, because of their name and a tenuous association with the Beatles, believed they were the real Father McKenzie.^[126]

In 1990, McCartney responded to a request from Sunbeams Music Trust by donating a historical document that listed the wages paid by Liverpool City Hospital; among the employees listed was Eleanor Rigby, who worked as a scullery maid at the hospital.^[127][128] Dating from 1911 and signed by the 16-year-old Rigby,^[122] the document attracted interest from collectors because of what it seemingly revealed about the inspiration behind the Beatles song.^[128] It sold at auction in November 2008 for £115,000. McCartney stated at the time: “Eleanor Rigby is a totally fictitious character that I made up … If someone wants to spend money buying a document to prove a fictitious character exists, that’s fine with me.”^[127]

Rigby’s grave in Woolton became a landmark for Beatles fans visiting Liverpool.^[15][129] A digitised image of the headstone was added to the 1995 music video for the Beatles’ reunion song “Free as a Bird“.^[108] Continued interest in a possible connection between the real-life Eleanor Rigby and the 1966 song led to the deeds for the grave being put up for auction in 2017,^[15][129] along with a Bible that once belonged to Rigby and a handwritten score for the track (subsequently withdrawn) and other items of Beatles memorabilia.^[130]

Legacy

Sociocultural impact and literary appreciation

Although “Eleanor Rigby” was far from the first popular song to deal with death and loneliness, according to Ian MacDonald it “came as quite a shock to pop listeners in 1966”.^[9] It took a bleak message of depression and desolation, written by a famous pop group, with a sombre, almost funeral-like backing, to the number one spot of the pop charts.^[131] Richie Unterberger of AllMusic cites the song’s focus on “the neglected concerns and fates of the elderly” as “just one example of why the Beatles’ appeal reached so far beyond the traditional rock audience”.^[66]

In its inclusion of compositions that departed from the format of standard love songs, Revolver marked the start of a change in the Beatles’ core audience, as their young, female-dominated fanbase gave way to a following that increasingly comprised more serious-minded, male listeners.^[132] Commenting on the preponderance of young people who, under the influence of drugs such as marijuana and LSD, increasingly afforded films and rock music exhaustive analysis, Mark Kurlansky writes: “Beatles songs were examined like Tennyson’s poems. Who was Eleanor Rigby?”^{[133][nb 11]}

The song’s lyrics became the subject of study by sociologists, who from 1966 began to view the band as spokesmen for their generation.^[67] In 2018, Colin Campbell, professor of sociology at the University of York, published a book-length analysis of the lyrics, titled The Continuing Story of Eleanor Rigby.^[136] Writing in the 1970s, however, Roy Carr and Tony Tyler dismissed the song’s sociological relevance as academics “rear[ing] a mis-shapen skull”, adding: “Though much praised at the time (by sociologists), ‘Eleanor Rigby’ was sentimental, melodramatic and a blind alley.”^{[137][nb 12]}

According to author and satirist Craig Brown, the lyrics to “Eleanor Rigby” have been “the most extravagantly praised” of all the Beatles’ songs, “and by all the right people”.^[139] These include poets such as Allen Ginsberg and Thom Gunn, the last of whom likened the song to W.H. Auden‘s poem “Miss Gee”, and literary critic Karl Miller, who included the lyrics in his 1968 anthology Writing in England Today.^{[140][nb 13]}

In his 1970 book Revolt in Style, Liverpudlian musician and critic George Melly admired the “imaginative truth of ‘Eleanor Rigby'”, likening it to author James Joyce‘s treatment of his own hometown in Dubliners.^[67] Novelist and poet A.S. Byatt recognised the song as having the “minimalist perfection” of a Samuel Beckett story.^[16][140] In a talk on BBC Radio 3 in 1993, Byatt said that “Wearing a face that she keeps in a jar by the door” – a line that MacDonald deems “the single most memorable image in The Beatles’ output” – conveys a level of despair unacceptable to English middle-class sensibilities and, rather than being a reference to make-up, suggests that Rigby “is faceless, is nothing” once alone in her home.^[142]

In 1982, the Eleanor Rigby statue was unveiled on Stanley Street in Liverpool as a donation from Tommy Steele in tribute to the Beatles. The plaque carries a dedication to “All the Lonely People”.^[143]

In 2004, Revolver appeared second in The Observer‘s list of “The 100 Greatest British Albums”, compiled by a panel of 100 contributors.^[144] In his commentary for the newspaper, John Harris highlighted “Eleanor Rigby” as arguably the album’s “single greatest achievement”, saying that it “perfectly evokes an England of bomb sites and spinsters, where in the darkest moments it does indeed seem that ‘no one was saved'”. Harris concluded: “Most pop songwriters have always wrapped up Englishness in camp and irony – here, in a rare moment for British rock, post-war Britain is portrayed in terms of its truly grave aspects.”^[145]

Musical influence and further recognition

David Simonelli cites the chamber-orchestrated “Eleanor Rigby” as an example of the Beatles’ influence being such that, whatever the style of song, their progressiveness defined the parameters of rock music.^[146] Music academics Michael Campbell and James Brody highlight the track’s melodic shape and imaginative backing to illustrate how, paired with similarly synergistic elements in “A Day in the Life“, the Beatles’ use of music and lyrics made them one of the two acts in 1960s rock, along with Bob Dylan, who were “most responsible for elevating its level of discourse and expanding its horizons”.^[147]

Soon after its release, Melly stated that “Pop has come of age” with “Eleanor Rigby”, while songwriter Jerry Leiber said, “I don’t think there’s ever been a better song written.”^[140] In a 1967 interview, Pete Townshend of the Who commented on the Beatles: “They are basically my main source of inspiration – and everyone else’s for that matter. I think ‘Eleanor Rigby’ was a very important musical move forward. It certainly inspired me to write and listen to things in that vein.”^[148] In his television show Inside Pop: The Rock Revolution, which aired in April 1967, American composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein championed the Beatles’ talents among contemporary pop acts and highlighted the song’s string arrangement as an example of the eclectic qualities that made 1960s pop music worthy of recognition as art.^[149] Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees said that their 1969 song “Melody Fair” was influenced by “Eleanor Rigby”.^[150] America‘s single “Lonely People” was written by Dan Peek in 1973 as an optimistic response to the Beatles track.^[151]

In 2000, Mojo ranked “Eleanor Rigby” at number 19 on the magazine’s list of “The 100 Greatest Songs of All Time”.^[108] In BBC Radio 2‘s millennium poll, listeners voted it as one of the top 100 songs of the twentieth century.^[152] It was ranked at number 137 on Rolling Stone‘s list “The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time” in 2004,^[153] and number 243 on the 2021 revised list.^[154] In 2006, Pitchfork ranked it at number 47 on its list of “The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s”.^[155] “Eleanor Rigby” was inducted into the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences‘ Grammy Hall of Fame in 2002.^[108] It has been a Desert Island Discs selection by individuals such as Cathy Berberian, Charles Aznavour, Patricia Hayes, Carlos Frank and Geoffrey Howe.^[140] Similarly, Marshall Crenshaw named it to a list of ten songs that represent perfect songwriting.^[156]

Other versions

Further information: List of cover versions of Beatles songs

By the mid-2000s, over 200 cover versions of “Eleanor Rigby” had been made.^[157] George Martin included the song on his November 1966 album George Martin Instrumentally Salutes “The Beatle Girls”,^[158] one of a series of interpretive works by the band’s producer designed to appeal to the easy listening market.^[159]

The song was also popular with soul artists seeking to widen their stylistic range.^[45] Ray Charles recorded a version that was released as a single in 1968^[45] and peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100^[160] and number 36 in the UK.^[161] Lennon highlighted it as a “fantastic” cover.^[29] Aretha Franklin‘s version of “Eleanor Rigby” charted at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 in December 1969.^[162] Music journalist Chris Ingham recognises the Charles and Franklin recordings as notable progressive soul interpretations of the song.^[157]

McCartney recorded a new version of “Eleanor Rigby”, with Martin again scoring the orchestration,^[163] for his 1984 film Give My Regards to Broad Street.^[164] Departing from the premise of the film, the song’s sequence features McCartney dressed in Victorian costume.^[165] On the accompanying soundtrack album, the track segues into a symphonic extension titled “Eleanor’s Dream”.^[166] He has also performed the song frequently in concert, starting with his 1989–90 world tour.^[117]

In 2021, composer Cody Fry arranged recordings submitted by 400 musicians into an orchestral cover of “Eleanor Rigby”.^[167] It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Arrangement, Instrumental and Vocals at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards.^[168]

Personnel

According to Ian MacDonald:^[169]

The Beatles

• Paul McCartney – lead and harmony vocals^[170]
• John Lennon – harmony vocals
• George Harrison – harmony vocals

Additional musicians

• Tony Gilbert – violin
• Sidney Sax – violin
• John Sharpe – violin
• Juergen Hess – violin
• Stephen Shingles – viola
• John Underwood – viola
• Derek Simpson – cello
• Norman Jones – cello
• George Martin – string arrangement, conducting